The Causes Of Deficit Financing In Pakistan Economics Essay free essay sample

The purpose of any authorities is to carry through the socioeconomic duties in order to interrupt the barbarous rhythm of poorness and besides elate the economic conditions. In Pakistan it has been practiced that the sum of revenue enhancement aggregation and no revenue enhancement aggregation grosss are non ample to run into the authorities outgo. To carry through the spread between the disbursement and grosss so the economic expert used the perceptual experience of shortage funding. The authorities borrowing from banking and non banking sector and publishing new currency is called shortage funding. Deficit funding shows the difference between projected outgo and projected disbursement. To make full the spread of authorities borrows from 1 ) province bank of the state 2 ) borrow from commercial Bankss 3 ) borrows from non fiscal sector such as salvaging centres, insurance companies 4 ) the last beginning is publishing new notes known as shortage funding. Deficit funding is a state of affairs where authorities spends more money than its gross aggregation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Causes Of Deficit Financing In Pakistan Economics Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Deficit funding is used for different intents the chief intent of shortage funding is used to stop the recession when the economic activity slow down in order to recover the economic system in the better state of affairs. In the 3rd universe states like Pakistan the shortage funding becomes the demand due to bad administration, deficient disbursement policies, corruptness, revenue enhancement equivocation, and deficient revenue enhancement aggregation. In the West the phrase Deficit Financing is used to explicate the deliberately create a difference between public grosss and expenditures or the budget shortage. This spread or difference can be filled by public adoption, commercial Bankss, and cardinal bank. The idle economy of is used to make full this spread that in bend addition the employment and end product of the state. Deficit funding is the most of import tool of bring forthing capital in developing and developing states. In developed state the new currency notes are used to back up the public investing that in bend increases the growing rate of a state. The authorities used the borrowed money for the development purposes i.e. railroads, roads, air services, societal overhead capital, schools, infirmaries etc. The shortage funding is besides used to increase the economic activity of a private sector in the state. The pecuniary enlargement in developing states attached with high rate of borrowing from Bankss and international beginnings to finance their budget shortage, budget shortage is the one factor that contributes in disequilibrium in the balances of payments. In developing states authoritiess are unable to mobilise or utilize their domestic resources due to inefficient revenue enhancement system, in such states the capital market are besides developing and the involvement rate determines institutionally. In such fortunes the supply of money addition that causes an addition in the monetary value degree. There are different beginnings of financing the economic development ; these resources are domestic resources and foreign resources. Domestic resources are those in which the authorities fundss through revenue enhancement, public adoption, and the economy of authorities that include the excess and besides include the shortage funding. The foreign beginning of finance consists of loans, grants, and private investing. The significance of both domestic and foreign resources has their ain in developing states. The most of import thing is used to put to death these resources in a manner that maximal benefit can be achieved for rapid development. 1.1 Background of the job Pakistan is a big state with a population of 17.50 million in 2010. The economic system of Pakistan is still confronting the low degree of per capita income that is stranded at 699 US $ in December 2012. In Pakistan the ratio of the budget shortage is different in different old ages. From last two decades the budget shortage is 5.4 % to 8.7 % of GDP. The mean shortage rate was 6 % in the period of 1970and it was 7.6 % in the period of 1980.In 1990s the shortage ratio was decreased to 6.4 % of GDP due to a decrease in development outgo. The ratio was non achieved by heightening the revenue enhancement system but due to the decrease in the development outgo. The Pakistan revenue enhancement system is still narrow and punctured due to the hapless and weak revenue enhancement disposal. The balance of payments shortage has become a lasting job of Pakistan s economic system. For the last 50 old ages Pakistan has been confronting continuously from a current history shortage. The international loans are used to finance the shortage. The debt service charged more than 5 % of the GDP of the state. With big budget shortage there is demand of rapid growing of domestic recognition. In developing states the function of free capital markets is limited. The chief beginning of authorities shortage is financed by the banking system. Like other developing states Pakistan is besides confronting a big budget shortage as the most outstanding job. Deficit funding is besides responsible for high rising prices rate, diminish growing rate, and low chances for private investing. Pakistan faces different rates of the budget shortage in different old ages. In last two decennary the budget shortage ratio was 5.4 % -8.7 % of GDP. The ratio was 7.6 % in 1980 s the ratio became 7.6 % in 2001- 2002. The rate of budget shortage in Pakistan has grown systematically with the transition of clip. At the clip of 80sthe budget shortage has increased every bit much as faster than the early periods and touched the ratio of 8.4 % in 1987-88. The rate of budget shortages has decreased to 7 % but that ratio was besides considered high one of the experts. Due to big budget shortage there was a high rate adoption is used to responsible for an addition in the domestic debts since 1980-81. In the period of 90 s the terrible state of affairs faced by the State Bank of Pakistan to command rising prices within the targeted bound and do certain the macroeconomic stableness. In the financial twelvemonth of 1998 and 2003 the rate of rising prices was 4.6 % that were comparatively lesser the best rate. In early 1973 and 1980 the rising prices rate was two digit figures that were 14.3 % . The rate of rising prices controlled in the period of 1980 that was 7.2 % per annum but unluckily the rate of rising prices once more grown to 10 % per annum. The high rate of rising prices besides caused due to extra money supply, financial instabilities, and shortage finance beginnings. 1.2 Problem Formulation Chaudary and Hamid ( 2001 ) Pakistan are confronting terrible obstructions of bring forthing public gross. The relentless failure in attainment of public gross leads the populace sector to depend on public adoption. The consequence is that the public debt goes to increase the rate of 90 % of GDP and the rate of budget shortage addition to 8 % of GDP. The figure of budget shortage lead to dual digit rising prices ( ref ) . These instabilities adversely affect the economic system. These jobs all are interconnected with each other in order to diminish the populace revenues that in bend create the hinderance to run into the demands of the public outgos. In this respect the attempts are made to better the revenue enhancement system that is non based on the scientific attack, that s why the to achieve the mark of accomplishing the projected mark failed continuously. The consequence is that it is non merely used to run into the demands of development undertakings because at that clip it non able to run into the demand of the current outgo. In Pakistan the less than 1 % population is taxpayer. Harmonizing to the economic study of ( 1998-99 ) Pakistan has experienced the sustainable growing rate more than three decennaries till 1990. Pakistan s economic system grew at the rate of 6 % per annum more than three decennaries but the state of affairs became inauspicious in 1990. The aggregation of revenue enhancement besides became really inauspicious at a satisfactory degree. The other developing states like Pakistan at the age of early growing need to acquire higher gross than the developed states. Due to the obstructions that prevail in acquiring the higher growing rate this could take to the unsustanability to last. Harmonizing to the economic study of 1998-99 the growing rate of Pakistan goes to toss off at 4.5 % per annum, the ratio was approximately 6 % in the last 3 decennaries and same ratio was 3 % for few old ages. The shortage finance is the consequence of failure in an addition in the populace sector to increase their nest eggs. The tendency shows that the attempts made in roll uping revenue enhancements do non run into the demand of the populace. It is of import to observe that Pakistan is non achieving the targeting gross through revenue enhancement. Harmonizing to universe development study ( 1979, 1991and 1997 ) the rate of revenue enhancement collection in the other developing states is 25 % . In the period of 1998-99 the revenue enhancement deficit was about 20 % ; it shows that there is demand of elaborate survey of the revenue enhancement reform system. The economic crises over in 2008, Pakistan have enjoyed greater economic activity. The policy shaper in Pakistan s battles a conflict against the crisis hit in 2008-2009. The sudden addition in the oil monetary values besides causes the dismaying state of affairs for the shortage in foreign debt and besides diminish the value of the rupee. Pakistan made attempts to seek the international pecuniary fund after the Alliess of China, USA, and Saudi Arabia to decline to supply the financess to the state in October 2008. Pakistan has provided the US $ 1 billion loan for 23 months. Pakistan asked the IMF to raise their loan from US47.6 billion to US $ 12.1 billion in February 2009. In grand 2009 the IMF increases the clip span to 25 months and increase the grant to US $ 11. 3 billion to run into their fiscal demands. 1.3 Previous surveies Ishfaq and Chaudhary ( 1999 ) The debt history of Pakistan started in 1984-85, when the excess grosss turned into a shortage. The financial shortage and debt converted into multiple rates. The entire shortage rate was Rs 89.2 billion in 1990-91 that rate was increased to 66 % in 1997-98 and about to Rs 148 billion. The domestic debt was increased to 185 per centum the sum increased Rs 448 billion to Rs 1280 billion and foreign debt increased to 156 per centum the sum was Rs 272 billion to Rs 697 billion in the same clip period. Pakistan has an chance to make some steps for the constitution of the macroeconomic index instead than to travel for shortage funding for bring forthing the gross. In the mid of the 2008 the Pakistan started registering the instability in the overall economic system. At the terminal of the 2008 the Pakistan financial shortage was increased to $ 5.6 billion that exceed to $ 8 billion. The trade shortage besides increases to $ 13 billion to $ 18 billion. Foreign modesty has fallen to diminish to $ 6.5 billion. ( Baig, 2011 ) Pakistan forced to take the aid from the IMF in order to acquire funding for the shortage finance of their economic system. The aid provided by the IMF was the bundle of $ 6.7 billion that was subsequently increased to $ 11.3 billion in 2009. The IMF besides helped Pakistan by supplying bilateral and many-sided assistance that besides causes to increase external debt and liabilities to $ 54 billion from $ 41 billion in January 2008. Pakistan is besides used to sovereign bonds and sindak bonds in order to utilize another signifier of shortage funding. This besides creates a job for a state to buy back these bonds harmonizing to their specified clip tabular array or agenda because different states have different foreign currencies. In these state of affairs investors does non demo their concern toward the investing. ( Baig, 2011 ) These both steps are taken by the international market that is non so plenty for the demands of the Pakistan and so authorities compelled toward the 3rd manner of shortage finance monetisation. The Pakistani authorities relies on the domestic adoption that is the cause of disparities in the debt kineticss. The domestic debt adoption increased to 24 % in the mid of 2008. Pakistan domestic debt was multiplied from Rs 2610 to Rs 4490 in the financial twelvemonth of 2007.At the terminal of March 2010 Pakistan domestic debt was $ 53.2 billion which was appoximately30.6 % of GDP. All the beginning of the shortage finance is neglecting to achieve the coveted consequences and take the economic system toward the negative way. By the mid of 2010 Pakistan s entire domestic debt reached to $ 100 billion and there is already paid involvement about $ 5.6 billion and debt service amounted $ 7.6 billion yearly that was expected to traverse the bound of $ 10 billion after the financial twelvemonth of 2010-11. ( Baig, 2011 ) Deficit finance works merely when there are such sound policies that direct the contrivers that how to pass money in a manner that raise debt, generate grosss and besides plan some actionable thoughts that directs that how to refund the debt. For the attainment of all these marks there should be a demand of honest and sincere governors that Pakistan does non hold. In this manner we are able to increase the debt and lifting the liabilities that is utile for the approaching coevals to pay off that. The money that is used to pass on the hereafter of the Pakistani people should besides be spent on the hereafter of Pakistan that could be served as the bureaucratism, foreign visit, corruptness and authorities officials. Today the Pakistan debt state of affairs is dismaying and we have no programs that how to raise sustainable grosss and holding no thought that how to roll up the external and domestic debt. We have really few and tough picks to do serious and valuable determinations. ( Baig, 2011 ) Causes of Deficit Financing in Pakistan The chief causes of shortage funding in Pakistan are: Addition in authorities outgo: The authorities expenditures both development and non development are increasing as clip base on ballss. The authorities has non been able to run into the outgo by its grosss. Ineffective budget shortage: There are uneffective financial policies implemented in Pakistan and financial undiscipline besides result the public debt. Fiscal shortage: The mean financial shortage in 1990s was 7 % of GDP. The public debt increased from 66 % of GDP in 1980 that about 100 % by the mid of 2000. In 2004-2005 the financial shortage was 3.3 % of GDP nevertheless ; it increased to 4.2 % in 2006-2007. Low economy: The people of Pakistan are ingestion oriented. Due to high ingestion rate the salvaging ratio was lower than 16 % . Rapid population growing: The rapid population growing besides a chief cause to decelerate down the economic activity of a state. Harmonizing to economic study of 2007-2008 the population growing was 1.8 % . In developing states the addition in money supply is one of the major causes of disequilibrium in the balance of payment with heavy authorities borrowing from Bankss and every bit good as from international beginning of finance. In such developing states authorities relies on the shortage funding due to unable to utilize their domestic beginnings due to the inflexible revenue enhancement construction. The capital market of such developing states is non able to find the involvement rate and the involvement rate was determined by the establishments that in instance the consequence of extra money supply. Purpose Statement The principle of this survey is used to prove the theory of association that relates the dependent variables and independent variables. Here in this survey the factors ( exchange rate, rising prices, revenue enhancement, involvement rate ) that is affected by the shortage funding are independent variables and GDP is dependent variable. Its individualism will be statistically restricted in this survey. Aim of Study The undermentioned aim will be paying consideration to steer the survey. To analyze the impact of shortage finance on the exchange rate To analyse the consequence of shortage funding on the revenue enhancement rates. To analyze the impact of shortage finance on the involvement rate. Significance of Study Our survey is about the impact of exchange rate, rising prices, revenue enhancements and involvement rate on shortage funding. In which we will see that how the factors are straight or indirectly affect by the shortage funding.

Chevrolet Branding in Europe

Chevrolet Branding in Europe Strategic Problem and Issue Identification The Project Midas team has a number of issues to address before marketing the Chevrolet brand in Europe. For instance, this brand is not known by many European customers. This gap is critical towards coming up with a powerful marketing strategy for this car brand.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Chevrolet Branding in Europe specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many European car buyers â€Å"have several preconceptions of American cars† (Kerin and Peterson 649). They also believe that such American cars are uneconomical. The marketing team also faces a number of challenges. For example, the poor performance of the Daewoo brand will affect the team. General Motors (GM) managed to win the trust of many European customers. However, the team should identify new strategies in order to make Chevrolet a leading brand in Europe. The team is required to embrace the best brand positioning strategies. A number of challenges will also affect these strategies. The Project Midas team is â€Å"required to carry over names for dealers, operating policies, and individual-product models† (Kerin and Peterson 634). A powerful strategy is required for the new Chevrolet brand. The important goal is to identify a powerful positioning strategy that can produce these goals. These goals include â€Å"complementing GM’s multi-brand portfolio in Europe, retaining the global image of the Chevrolet brand, and resonating with European car consumers† (Kerin and Peterson 634). Analysis and Evaluation The provided case study identifies the major issues affecting the Project Midas team. To begin with, many European car buyers have been admiring the Daewoo brand. The Daewoo brand â€Å"is admired by members of the European middle class† (Kerin and Peterson 639).Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help y ou! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to many clients, Daewoo Company was also producing good cars. The introduction of the Daewoo Matiz proved successful for the company. However, Daewoo Company became bankrupt in 1999. The formation of GM Daewoo Auto and Technology Company supported the performance of the brand in Europe. The firm used a powerful positioning research to attract the right customers. The brand also became admirable in the content. This achievement shows clearly that GM can market the Chevrolet brand in Europe successfully. The Chevrolet brand presents a powerful image to every potential customer. The number of threats faced by the Daewoo brand can make the Project Midas team unsuccessful. For instance, GM Daewoo lacked a proper advertising strategy in Europe. The company did not â€Å"embrace new product development strategies† (Kerin and Peterson 648). The depreciation of different Korean brands in Europe affected GM Daew oo’s performance. There is also â€Å"a huge disconnect between the customer belief about the realities of the GM Daewoo and the Chevrolet brand in Europe† (Kerin and Peterson 649). Recommendations The Project Midas team should therefore consider the realities presented in the case study. GM Daewoo has encountered several weaknesses and challenges. These weaknesses should be converted into strengths in order to make the Chevrolet brand successful. The Project Midas team should embrace new strategies in order to emerge successful in Europe (Kerin and Peterson 636). The firm should consider the strengths of the Chevrolet brand in other markets.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Chevrolet Branding in Europe specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A powerful advertising strategy will ensure more buyers understand the quality associated with this car brand. The company should also produce both diesel and petrol cars in order to attract more customers. A powerful awareness campaign should be used in order to make this car brand successful in Europe (Kerin and Peterson 648). GM should also target different classes in the continent. This approach will ensure Chevrolet becomes a successful brand. Kerin, Roger, and Robert Peterson. Strategic Marketing Problems: Cases and Comments. Upper-Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.

Social Phenomena Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Social Phenomena - Essay Example Each of these views relies upon more or less legitimate arguments and evidence, but neither of them is flawless. Functionalist perspective still remains arguably the most influential tool for understanding the phenomenon of deviant behavior. Since the term 'deviant behavior' is rather broad, only two types of social deviance will be closely analyzed within this project: crime and suicide. Functionalist explanation of the causes and social outcomes of these types can lead us to understanding of functionalist perspective on deviant behavior in general. Emile Durkheim, the famous French sociologist of the 19th - 20th century, was probably the first scholar to adopt the logic of the functional approach studying the phenomenon of deviant behavior. Thus, Durkheim claimed, "When . . . the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the efficient cause which produces it and the function it fulfills. We must determine whether there is a correspondence between the fact under consideration and the general needs of the social organism, and in what this correspondence consists" (Durkheim, 1930 in Coser, 1977: 143). Ut Utilizing these principles Durkheim focused on the way a society stimulates individuals demonstrate deviant behavior than on individual characteristics of those whom demonstrate such behavior, though majority of sociologists of those days viewed crime, suicide, and other forms of social deviance as an outcome of inborn psychological characteristics of the individual. Durkheim considered such approach flawed. Instead, the scholar argued that deviance in general and crime in particular was by no means abnormal or dangerous for the society: "Crime is normal, an inevitable and necessary part of every society [although] it may take abnormal forms, such as when the crime rate is unusually high (Durkheim, 1961: 872). Durkheim's views on another form of deviance - suicide - were absolutely the same. "La Suicide" was the third major work of Emile Durkheim. This book was the first sociological research that established the traceable empiric connection between the phenomenon of individual suicide and social environment, and defined certain social functions of suicide. In the end of the 19th century suicide or self-destruction was considered a form of deviant behaviour that occurred in insane individuals. Durkheim challenged this traditional standpoint that suicide was an unpreventable pathology. Instead, he provided " a sociological explanation for a phenomenon traditionally regarded as exclusively psychological and individualistic" (Thompson, 1982: 109). In fact, Durkheim formulated the founding principles of functionalist perspective on deviance precisely in his study of suicide. Even today, despite abundance of recent studies, Durkheim's work remains the most significant sociological analysis of s uicide in modern societies. Suicide is a complex phenomenon that can be caused by numerous factors. Many reasons both individual and social have been demonstrated to have certain correlation with self-destructive

Treament for the elderly alcoholic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Treament for the elderly alcoholic - Assignment Example The focus was on the goals and purposes of treatment of elderly alcoholics and how the services he offered could be accessed. We also discussed a variety of crisis situations followed by a question answer session. The outcome of an hour long interview is enumerated as under in detail. Dr. Cowan emphasized that the problem with alcoholism among the elderly is that it plays into a number of other conditions that a patient has. Alcoholism tends to weaken the immune system of an elderly at such a rapid pace that he gets less time to recover. Assessment is a serious problem, he noted, in part because of the ways in which prescription medication can mask it. This is backed up by the literature (Miller, 2010, p. 318). He described the purpose of treating elderly alcoholics is to get them into a treatment program. â€Å"Often times these kinds of patients don't come in to see me. Mostly one of the children decides that enough is enough and it is time for this person to seek treatment. Bigge st thing that one should have to fight alcoholism is the will. If you don't want to get better, you never will.† He emphasized that another goal of treatment is to involve family members as they provide the key support network for elderly people. He identified this as the main way that the services would be accessed: the patients would be brought in by relatives. Media both print and electronic are also being used by people to curtail alcoholism. Family physicians also guide elderly alcoholic patients to visit a classified health professional. Nevertheless, he said, as with all addiction, there is a great deal of resistance. As a doctor, I have to recognize that and do my best to make the process easier. The goal is to leave the person better off than before. He spent some time talking about the importance of the subject. â€Å"There are studies that show alcoholism among the elderly is very prevalent. It is hidden from view in part because elderly people are hidden from view . Part of the problem is that alcoholism can be confused with any number of other health issues. That is not a reason to step away from the study of this disease. If anything, it is a reason to renew our interest. Any time we see a group in society that is falling through the tracks we need to do everything we can to help them. The elderly are more sensitive to the effects of alcohol for a lot of different reasons and their biochemistry has changed with age. That is an interesting issue which I devote a fair amount of study to. The whole ageing process is fascinating. We're all going to end up there one day, so we should know as much as we can.† Looking at alcohol treatment is important, he said, because there is an indication that the amount of abuse is increasing. Some studies indicate that this is the case (Sirvin and Malamut, 2008, p. 515). Finally, we talked about crisis situations that are compelling people to seek help. Deteriorating health because of alcoholism is a ma jor reason that finally makes a patient to seek treatment. Physiatrists, when consulted by individuals also led them to sea a doctor. Self determination to get rid of the abuses and live a better life also made few people to visit a professional. Relatives also motivated to habitual elderly patients to fight the alcoholism. I found Dr. Cowan to be a very knowledgeable and sincere practitioner. The process and the goals that he described made sense to me. It was fascinating to hear

United 93 Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

United 93 Film - Essay Example United 93 Film The events in the movie are intended to be as truthful as possible, and it takes on the views and opinions of some of the family members of the victims. The movie begins with a scene of the hijackers praying in their hotel room. It then shows the four attackers leaving for Newark International Airport. Before they board the plane, a scene shows one of the hijackers calling his family members and saying goodbye. I was taken aback by this because I have always seen those people as terrorists and monsters, yet the seemed to be human just like me or anyone else during this movie. Once the plane is in the air, the scene is just like any normal morning domestic flight; people are laughing and joking around, sitting quietly in their seats, while others were just taking sips of coffee while admiring the view. While this flight is in the air, on the ground we can see the television coverage of the two planes crashing into the World Trade Center; the passengers on Flight 93 are oblivious to th e fact. Meanwhile, the terrorists are discussing among themselves when to start their operation. One of the hijackers assembles a fake bomb, while the other three storm the cockpit. The passengers begin to understand the events happening in New York and thus decide to retake the plane to prevent a similar event from occurring. They overpower the terrorist who claims to be holding a bomb, which later turns out to be a fake.

Understanding Educational Aspirations And Expectations

Understanding Educational Aspirations And Expectations It is no longer questioned that high education level and human capital formation promote human well-being and are one of the main preconditions for economic growth (Romer, 1989:28). Moreover, along with evolving globalization, competition and economic challenges world is facing, returns to academic achievements have become larger than ever (Harmon and Walker, 2001:39), and low academic achievements can be seen as a constraint for economic independence. It has been observed that during the World financial crisis unemployment has risen exactly among the less educated people  [1]  . Therefore, it would be just natural if we would see more young adults, from both genders and all ethnic and social groups, reaching for higher educational levels and taking advantage of possibility to gain higher returns. However, evidence shows that educational attainment among youth differs significantly (e.g., Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987). Therefore, the question remains: why equally talented individual s with similar abilities and initial preferences make different academic choices, and why some of them end up in lower paying jobs and occupations? Economists have tried to explain this phenomenon with the existence of credit market imperfections, which individuals from less advantageous backgrounds might be facing (Loury 1981, Galor and Zeira 1993, Piketty 1997). However, these hypotheses are questioned in a large body of literature. Although in developing countries credit constraints might be a partial explanation for differences in educational attainment, this does not fully explain the differences in the developed world. Evidence shows that in developed word families facing economic constraints, when it comes to education, represent only a small part of the community (Cameron and Taber 2002). Besides, nowadays there exist many organizations and funds which are providing scholarships and financial help to students from low income families  [2]  . Therefore, it is essential to look for other, more internal reasons that could explain differences in educational choices and attainment among young adults with equal abilities a nd preferences. For being able to understand and change ones educational and career choices, it is crucial to understand what determines his or her aspirations. However, explaining it is not a straight forward task. Aspirations are determined already in early childhood and are prone to changes throughout the life. Moreover, sometimes high educational aspirations are not sufficient to guarantee a better outcome. This phenomenon exists due to aspiration-expectation gap, when ones desired goals do not coincide with the expected outcome due to the disbelief to a successful result. This pattern is especially observed among women and certain ethnic groups. Therefore, it is not only crucial to look at the level of educational aspirations, but it is also essential to ask if ones aspirations are always fulfilled. Although a considerable amount of literature has examined educational and career aspirations of young adults, the existing literature tends to provide somehow different conclusions; therefore, a comprehensive and critical literature review, overlooking different factor influence ones academic and career aspirations, is still missing. The purpose of this study is to contribute to an understand of how factors like gender, ethnicity, peers, parents, teachers and self-efficacy beliefs influence young adult academic and career aspirations and decision making. This thesis will also explain why sometimes high aspirations for girls and Black students do not lead to higher educational outcomes; the existence of an aspiration-expectation gap will be supported by the latest empirical data. Further, this thesis will discuss the existing policy measures aimed to promote and raise children educational attainment. Hence, the research questions of this thesis are: What are the determinants of educational and career aspirations? Why high educational aspirations do not always lead to better outcomes? What are the existing policies and projects in order to raise ones educational and career expectations? The focus of the thesis will be qualitative studies and will be based on an extensive literature review, covering various study fields, explaining the determinants of educational and career aspirations (Part I). Part II will provide different theories explaining an aspiration-expectation gap for girls and Black students; the existence of it will be supported by the latest quantitative data from U.S. Census Bureau 2010. Further Part III will concentrate on the overview of the policy measures and government projects that have been implemented in order to raise ones expectation level and close the aspiration-expectation gap. Chapter 1 Literature review of the determinants of educational and career aspirations This chapter introduces the determinants of educational and career aspirations and expectations. It begins with an introduction of the necessary definitions. Further, it is explained how ones aspirations and expectations are formed by providing different views and findings from an existing literature. 1.1 Defining educational and career aspirations It is believed that student educational and career aspirations are the most relevant factors determining ones future educational attainment (Gottfredson 1981; Trice and King, 1991). Therefore, it is essential to understand the exact meaning of aspirations. However, there has not been reached a consensus of one and certain definition; therefore, various explanations have been provided by different authors. Markus and Nurius (1986) have reported aspirations as ones ideas and hopes of possible selves, i.e., what a person would like to and what would not like to become or achieve. In psychology, aspiration level has been defined as the level of quality of a task which one desires to attain. It is a determinant of an individuals performance level in the future. It has been hypothesized that aspiration level varies from persons to person and place to place and is determined by factors that may change and influence aspirations level during the lifetime  [3]  . Likewise, the Wisconsin model  [4]  , which is a socio-economical model developed by Sewell and his colleagues in 1969 meant to explain ones social mobility and its determinants, provides definitions of educational and career aspirations. The educational aspiration level variable in the model is explained as the level of education one would like to attain, e.g., not continue higher education after high school, finish vocational school or attains college or university degree. Sewell et al. (1969) defines career aspiration level as ones ambitions and thoughts about their future occupation. However, some studies have suggested that high educational aspirations do not necessarily lead to high educational attainment (Empson, 1992; Conroy, 1997). Gottfredson (1981) has identified this phenomenon and has provided explanation to it. She suggests the existence of realistic aspirations or expectations and idealistic aspirations. The former is applied when ones educational and career aspirations are tempered by knowledge of obstacles and opportunities (Brown, 2002: 91), while the idealistic aspirations are ones desired goals and ideal education and occupation, in other words best possible life outcome. If there is a difference between these two types of aspirations and ones idealistic aspirations do not reflect ones expectations or realistic aspirations, there exist an aspiration-expectation gap (Danziger and Eden, 2006). Hence, in this thesis Gottfredsons theory about two types of aspirations and Danzigers and Edens definition of aspiration-expectation gap will be used. Firstly, determinants of idealistic aspirations will be discussed. Later this thesis will elaborate on the external factors that shape ones expectations or realistic aspirations. For the sake of simplicity, in the following text this thesis will refer to realistic aspirations as expectations while to idealistic aspirations as aspirations. 1.2 Determinants of educational and career aspirations and expectations Understanding the exact elements that determine ones educational and career aspirations and expectations is a tricky task. Existing evidence shows that there are many factor and circumstances that can shape them in a positive or negative way. Therefore, to contribute to a clearer understanding, in the following sections this thesis will deeply and broadly examine the determinants of aspirations and expectations. 1.2.1 Initial endowments determinants of ones aspirations We will firstly look at the initial endowment determinants, i.e. gender and ethnicity, which influence ones aspirations. These factors are extremely powerful in shaping ones academic and career aspiration level already in an early childhood. 1.2.1.1 Gender: Gender effect has a relevant role in determining ones aspiration level. A considerable amount of literature has focused on gender-related differences in academic and career aspirations (Howard, 1979; Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987; Danziger and Eden, 2007). Different views exist on the nature of the differences among both gender aspirations. Patton and Creed (2007) has argued that male students tend to hold higher aspirations for education level and position in the labor force, while Mau and Bikos (2000), approaching the same question, found the opposite. They claimed that girls are more likely to hold higher aspirations than men. Overall, most of the studies have supported Mau and Bikos (2000) view (Figure No.1) (e.g., Clift and Vaughan 1997; Butlin 1999; Anisef et al., 2001; Perry et al., 2009). Also, during the last decades female educational attainment and workforce has increased rapidly (Schoon, Martin and Ross, 2007); however, it has been observed that not too many women expect to follow careers which are mainly associated with the opposite sex, such as science and technology, despite the fact that these careers usually yield higher salary. This pattern becomes even more compelling as there is no evidence observed of differences i n quantitative abilities in tasks related to science and technology between both genders (Betz and Hackett, 1981). Figure No.1: Source: Looker, D. And Thiessen, V. (2004:Figure 1) 1.2.1.2 Ethnicity: Research has shown that educational and career aspirations vary across different ethnic groups. However, the results found in different studies yield different conclusions. It has been wildly assumed that the highest educational aspirations are held by Asian (especially Chinese) students (e.g., Cheng and Stark, 2002; Willitts et al., 2005). Their high aspirations are formed earlier than ones for other ethnic groups and are held constantly high throughout life (Kao and Tienda, 1998). Most of the researches contacted have found that White boys have the lowest aspiration level between all the other ethnic groups (Figure No.2) (Dillard and Perrin, 1980; Strand, 2007) and their educational achievements during the last years have increased less than for other ethnic groups (Figure No.3)  [5]  . White boys were found to hold lower aspirations than their Black peers in the research conducted by Wilson and Wilson (1992). Contrary, Cook et al. (1996) discovered that middle class White male s had higher educational aspirations than low-income African American males. However, this conclusion does not seem straight-forward as the differences might be also explained by the economic factors. Figure No.2: Figure No. 3: Data source: S., Strand (2007: 39) Data source: Department for Children, Schools and Families: Statistical First Release, England (2010: 12) Although, Strand (2007) has found that Black Caribbean and Black African students might have higher academic aspirations than White students, their higher educational attainment seems to be much lower (Figure No.4). Therefore, a question arises: what are the factors that do not allow high aspiration transformation into high achievements? The answer lies in the aspiration-expectation gap on which this thesis will elaborate in chapter 2. Figure No.3: Source: Jusan Ng (2011) 1.2.2 External factors determinants of ones expectations In the next two sub-sections, this thesis will concentrate on external factors, i.e., peers, teachers and parents, which can positively or negatively influence ones academic and career expectations. 1.2.2.1 Peer effect: A variable studied in the literature concerning the determinants of academic and career expectations is the peer effect. The peer effect refers to the positive or negative influence significant others have on ones expectations and level of achievement (e.g., by providing one with feedbacks, models or norms how they should behave, think and act in certain situations). Among their peers young adults develop their identities and self concept; therefore they are essential socialization agents for a young individual (Bandura, 1989; Brown et. al., 1994; Black, 2002). Although, some have argued that children expectations are more likely to be shaped by the characteristics of a family than by the characteristics of peers (Duncan et. al., 2001), relevant amount of the literature shows that peers play a crucial role in influencing ones achievement level and educational expectations (Peterson et al., 1986; Willms 1986; Goldstein et al., 2005). Ide et al. (1981) examined ten studies published form 1966 to 1978 that concerned the peer effects influence on ones academic achievements and expectations. In all these studies, they found a significant correlation. This finding is consistent with Downs and Rose (1991) who argue that peer effect is contributing to the construction of ones behavior and academic expectations. Another, slightly different view is held by Haller and Butterworth (1960) who look more critically on the straight forward correlation between ones academic expectations and peer influence. Although, they do not reject it, they emphasize that the initial factors, like characteristics and family backgrounds, could play a key role in bringing together similar individuals in that way forming homogeneous groups of peers. According to Jonsson and Mood (2008) children with high academic expectations and achievements are likely to connect with those sharing the same interests and expectations. Oppositely, adolescents, who have worse attitude to school and lower expectations, will most probable be attracted to peers with similar views (Ryan, 2000). In sum, it has been found that being around a certain group of people will have an effect on a persons future, specifically, it will impact the academic level or career one will expect to achieve. However, the degree of the importance of peers is ambiguous as different studies yield different results. 1.2.2.2 Teachers and parents influence: As discussed earlier peers have a certain influence on shaping ones academic expectations (e.g., Peterson et al., 1986; Willms, 1986; Black, 2002); however, a significant amount of literature points out the importance of familys and teachers influence on children long term decisions, e.g., occupation considerations (Jurkovic and Ulrici, 1985; OBrien, 1990; Furman and Buhrmeister, 1992; Wall et al., 1999; Duncan et. al., 2001). It is believed that teachers and parents can positively influence ones confidence and beliefs of his or her abilities, thus, persuading that the person is capable of being successful in further life (Van Auken and Stephens, 2006). According to Wall et al. (1999) parents as a support and role model have influence on ones conception about educational and career opportunities. Parents social support is directly linked with students school experiences, achievements and behaviors (Nurmi, 1987). There also exist a positive correlation between parents expectations for their child and childs expectations for himself (e.g., Davies and Kandel, 1981; Hossler and Stage, 1992). Family support can encourage the student to devote bigger effort to learning and school tasks (Gilbert et al., 1993). It is also observed that children who have the highest self-efficacy are the ones with the biggest family social support (Dubow and Ullman, 1989). In contrast, the ones with low family cohesion are more exposed to depression, low self-efficacy and self-esteem (Moran and Eckenrode, 1991; Cauce et al., 1992; Hirsch and DuBois, 1992). Moreover, Wall et al. (1999) has claimed a stronger correlation between young male expectations and the family support than the one for girls. In the research by Roper, (2008) it was shown that parent expectations and student GPA are correlated (Table No.1). Children with higher grades tended to have parents with higher expectations for them. According to De Coulon et al. (2008) also parents education level plays a significant role in formation of children expectations. In their research, they found a significant correlation between low literacy rates of parents and low test scores by their children. It was shown that parents with the lowest literacy skills were the least supportive and encouraging in relation to education. As a result, children with such parents were more likely to report dissatisfaction with school and develop low educational expectations. Table No.1: Source: Roper (2008: 2) A significant amount of literature has discussed parents and family role in shaping ones expectations, however, the body of literature about teachers expectation influence is rather small. Cheung (1995) found evidence on positive teacher influence on ones academic achievements. Teacher support has shown to have a bigger influence on women, student from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and ethnic minority perceptions of academic and career opportunities (Ellis and Lane, 1963; Wall et al., 1999). However, it is often blamed that teachers have insufficient expectations for their students, especially for students in rural areas and for certain student groups (Bishop, 1989; Hilliard III, 1991). It is shown that teachers tend to establish better contact and attitude forward students with higher ability (Bamburg, 1994). This is seen as a problem because children tend to internalize and adopt teacher perceptions about their abilities, which as a result, in case of low teacher expectations can lead to psychological constraints for self-efficacy and self-esteem (Raffini, 1993). To sum up, a considerable body of literature has shown that teachers, parents and peers can influence ones academic and career expectations. Young adults tend to internalize expectations that others have about him or her and accordingly adjust their own educational and career expectations. 1.2.3 Self-efficacy beliefs As already discussed, all of the beforehand mentioned factors, i.e., gender, ethnicity and social support, have an effect on shaping ones behavior, thoughts and attitudes towards different tasks, education levels and occupations. However, in order to be able to reach the aspired goals it is also extremely beneficial that one has a high self confidence in what he is doing. It was shown that teachers and parents have the ability to influence ones self-beliefs what in turn leads to higher or lower level of academic expectations of that individual. Therefore, this section will discuss why high self-efficacy beliefs, i.e., ones belief that she or he is capable of producing certain level of performance to attain certain goals (Bandura et al., 2001), are important in determining the outcome. The importance of self-efficacy on ones educational expectations have been wildly studied in the literature (e.g., Bandura, 1994; Lent and Brown, 1996; Nauta et al., 1998; Brown Lent, 2006); it has been proven that individuals self-efficacy beliefs have a significant importance in promoting positive outcomes and reducing the possibility of negative outcomes (Oyserman et al., 2006; Destin and Oyserman, 2009). Students who have high self-efficacy are more productive, efficient and confident about their performances than their peers with the same ability but lower self-efficacy. It has been also shown that they put more effort and are more concentrated on the task than others, as well as they are more committed to their goals (Bandura, 1997; Schunk and Pajares, 2005). Therefore, the ones with high self beliefs perform better and based on better outcomes have higher future academic and career expectations (Brown Lent, 2006) (Figure No.5)  [6]  . Figure No.5: Source: Looker, D. And Thiessen, V. (2004: Figure 10) Chapter 2 Aspiration-expectation gap In the previous chapter, determinants of ones academic and career aspirations and expectations were discussed. It was shown by the evidence from the existing literature, that girls are more likely to hold higher aspirations than boys (e.g., Clift and Vaughan 1997; Butlin 1999; Anisef et al., 2001; Perry et al., 2009) and Black adolescents hold higher aspirations than Whites (e.g., Wilson and Wilson, 1992; Strand, 2007). It was also shown that social support has an influence on forming ones expectations. However, high aspirations do not always lead to high educational attainment and high position in the labor force (Strand, 2007). It has been suggested that the problem lies in the difference between aspirations and expectations. Unfortunately, often academic and career expectations of girls, Black Africans and Black Caribbean students are lower than their aspirations due to some perceptions in the society, perceived barriers or even academic feedback (e.g., Gottfredson, 1981; Armstrong Crombie, 2000). As a result, this can lead to underachievement and lowered self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura et.al. 2001). This chapter will approach this phenomenon by providing existing and relevant theories that tend to explain the reasons of an existing aspiration-expectation gap for females and ethnic minorities. Later, empirical data obtained from U.S. Census Bureau results will be provided to help us to confirm or reject some of the existing theories and hypothesis, therefore, giving the final concussions. 2.1 Gender: One of the explanations for different gender-related career expectations is that women career decisions are more complex than those of men. This arises from a bigger involvement in family and children lives or possible early pregnancy (Vonderacek et al., 1986; Lucas et.al., 1997; Eccles, 2005). Even more, women academic and career expectations can be shaped by existing stereotypes or strong gender identity because of social role perceptions (Eagly, 1987; Akerlof and Kranton, 2000; Danziger and Eden, 2007; Gupta et al., 2008). 2.1.1 Stereotype activation theory: Gender stereotyping can influence a persons decision making when it comes to academic or career choice (Heilman, 2001; Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald, 2002). Gupta et al. (2008) examined the impact of stereotypes on both genders intentions to follow traditionally male-related occupations. They found evidence showing that people were likely to internalize stereotypes and act according to them, choosing tasks associated with their own gender. This pattern is more observable if the stereotype is wildly accepted in a culture (Heilman, 2001). According to Day (1990) many women have high aspirations; however, usually they do not expect to be able to have the occupation they would like to in case it is more male-dominated. Wall et al. (1999) was examining the correlation between career expectations and career aspirations. As a result, they found inconsistency between women career expectations and aspirations, i.e., their expectations were most of the time lower than their aspirations. The phenomenon was explained by stereotypes in the society about gender-related jobs and women beliefs about the limits of what they possibly can achieve. 2.1.2 Social role and socialization theory: Another important theory explaining differences in men and women career and academic expectations is the social role theory. The theory, developed by Eagly (1987) is based on the historical division of men and women roles in the society, where women were associated with household responsibilities while men had responsibilities concerning livelihood of the family. Consequently, career expectations started to differ among men and women. Furthermore, the gender-related roles were usually transmitted to future generation making the distinction between appropriate gender roles in the society even stronger (Eagly, 1987). Moreover, the academic and career expectations are shaped by socialization processes people experience in childhood. Socialization shapes people perceptions of what is appropriate for themselves and for others, including what is expected from both genders (Seymour, 1999). Further, in early childhood children learn these roles associated with their gender, which in turn, shapes later perceptions about different types of jobs and influences their academic and career expectations (Danziger and Eden, 2007). According to Eagly and Wood (1999) and Franke et al. (1997) both genders tend to adjust their expectations in accordance with their social roles and expect to have occupations connected with their own gender (Dunne, Elliott and Carlsen, 1981). This leads to men occupying men-related professions and attaining higher educational levels while women tend to enter more female-related studies and jobs and attain lower educational levels (Powell and Butterfield, 2003). Although, gender stereotyping has been diminishing and the gender gap in education has been decreasing (Power and Wojtkiewiez, 2004), there are still fewer female than male representatives in men-related studies and profession fields (Powell and Butterfield, 2003); this shows that Eaglys (1987) social role theory is a considerable attempt to explain the differences between female and male academic and career expectations. 2.2 Ethicity: There are two main views, respectively structuralist and culturalist, that tend to explain differences in educational attainment between ethnic groups. 2.2.1 Structuralist theory: According to structuralist perspective, differences in educational choices between ethnic groups can be explained by external factors. The most influential factor, following structuralist theory, shaping ones expectations is the teacher support. This view has been supported by Ellis and Lane (1963) and Wall et al. (1999) who state that teacher support have an influence on ethnic minority students perceptions about academic and career opportunities. Unfortunately, most of the time teacher expectations are negatively correlated with ethnic minority group students expectations (Strand, 2007). In his report, Strand (2007) found evidence that teachers are likely to develop lower expectations for certain ethnic groups, especially for Black students. They also tend to hold unequal attitude towards White and Black student behaviors due to racism and social stereotypes. This, as a result, leads to a situation where ethnic minority students, following teacher beliefs about them, lower their ow n expectations of the possible outcomes regardless to their initial high aspirations. This, in turn, can explain the differences in educational attainment between Black students and their other ethnicity peers. However, the hypothesis, that educational expectations and attainment between ethnic groups can be fully explained by racism and social stereotypes have been criticized. Modood (2003) has argued that Asian students tend to face more social pressure and racial harassment than Black Caribbean and Black African students, yet their achievements are outstanding and there is no evidence that Asian students would experience aspiration-expectation discrepancies due to the racism toward their ethnic group. Although, there exist several problems with the structuralist core assumptions, their ideas present useful and testable information that helps to explain and understand the reasons behind Black African and Caribbean student aspiration-expectation discrepancies. 2.2.2 Culturalist theory: According to culturalist point of view, differences in educational choices rise from internal factors, like internalization of historical and social norms or constraints. Therefore, culturalist perspective can partly fill the missing holes in the structuralist theory and explain why, for example, Asian students perform better than their Black peers although are both prone to racial harassment. Caplan et al. (1991) has argued that Asian performance is significantly better than one for other ethnic groups due to their cultural perceptions and understanding. It is claimed that Asian students tend to hold higher sense of responsibility for their family and prioritize self-reliance more than students from other ethnic groups, especially, Black Africans and Black Caribbeans. It is observed that Black Caribbean boys on average experience bigger peer pressure than other ethnic groups. They are exposed to the pressure to adopt the lifestyle of street culture, which negatively influences their academic performance (Sewell, 1997). Ogbu and Fordhams (1986) have contributed to the explanation why Black students tend to have low educational attainment despite the fact that they are holding high educational aspirations. They focused on two opposite ways how students are thinking and behaving, i.e., acting White and acting Black. Due to the previously mentioned peer pressure of adopting the street culture, acting White, i.e., doing well at school, is not seen as appropriate behavior for Black students. Therefore, Black students choose to keep their identities and are avoiding acting White, what results in lower educational achievements and attainment than in case of an absence of this pressure. Another factor that triggers the low educational attainment for Black African and Caribbean students is the socio-historical factor (Ogbu, 1991). Based on the historical roles in the society for Black population, Black African and Black Caribbean students may under value the necessity of investment in education. This is due to job ceiling they might feel they are facing. It has been suggested that Black people do not have the same economic opportunities as White people in the job market. In a recent study, Fouad and Byars-Winston (2005) found that, despite the high aspiration level among the Black students, they expected fewer job offers and opportunities than their White counterparts. Therefore, it is easy to understand why Black student do not see education as an essential tool for being able to gain a high position in the labor force and their academic attainment is lower than the one for other ethnic groups. This in turn, unfortunately, has resulted in a tendency that Black peopl e are overrepresented in low skilled jobs and are a considerable propo

Psychodynamic Counselling Concept Essay

In this essay I mainly discuss the theory and concepts behind psychodynamic counselling, followed by brief discussions of the practice and skills involved in working as a psychodynamic counsellor, and the client’s experience of counselling. Theory/concepts Psychodynamic counselling is mainly concerned with unconscious processes; it takes for granted that humans possess a largely unconscious inner world. Freud argued that while the conscious mind is governed by logic, the unconscious mind is not, and functions in a very literal way, motivated only to experience pleasure, unable to delay gratification. Although Psychodynamic counselling works with the conscious mind, it mainly focuses on unconscious processes. We have key figures in our lives – e.g. parents, carers, and partners – are referred to as ‘objects’, and relationships with them termed ‘object relationships’. The phrase ‘object’ refers to the Freudian concept of the target, or object of the instinct. Object relationships embody not only actual relationships but also the ways that the conscious mind distorts them. The unconscious is viewed as dynamic and purposeful, having huge impact on emotions and behaviour. Psychodynamic theory posits that humans are driven by a need to remain unaware of uncomfortable truths that emerge from the unconscious, experiencing many conflicting needs and demands, e.g. between one’s own wishes and those of others. To deal with conflicts people develop ‘defences’, these include ‘repression’, a form of forgetting, ‘denial’, claiming that something is not upsetting when really it is, and ‘rationalisation’, where a story is created to account for that which feels uncomfortable. ‘Projection’ involves attributing to others characteristics unacceptable to the self, making assumptions about them based on the need to avoid threat. Psychodynamic counselling encourages the client to recognise and accept the troubling attribute, a process called ‘reintrojection’. To engage in projection a defence mechanism called, ‘splitting’, is used when one is finding it too  threatening to accept two opposing traits, such as being capable of both love and hate. It is natural to develop defences, but problems come with their overuse, e.g. using denial so often that problems are not faced. Applying defences too rigidly causes difficulties, and it’s when they start to disintegrate that individuals might seek counselling. Psychodynamic counselling holds that psychological symptoms emerge from the inner world. e.g., developmental problems or conflict may lead to anxiety or self-harm. The psychodynamic approach seeks to address these issues at their roots, as well as alleviating symptoms. Psychodynamic counselling is based on developmental theory, and asserts that childhood experiences affect adult personality. It is understood that episodic memory is physically unavailable to children under three, but that implicit memory and body memory function from an earlier age. Neuroscience now supports the concept that early emotional experiences influence brain development; the psychodynamic approach posits that the client-counsellor relationship is crucial to the process of change. This is considered in terms of three concepts, the first being transference: â€Å"All those impulses experienced by the patient in relation with the analyst which are not newly created by the objective analytic situation but have their source in early – indeed, the very earliest – object relations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The counsellor may become aware of feelings in him/herself indicating issues that the client is unable to express; this is ‘counter transference’. The ‘real relationship’ is that which is free of the previous two dynamics. Within the client-counsellor relationship, elements of the client’s inner world can be revealed and become available for healing (Howard, 2011, p.22-25) Practice/skills Psychodynamic counselling employs a number of basic skills that are common to other approaches. It shares the core values of the Rogerian approach: empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. The ability to listen is of course crucial. Summarising and reflecting back to the client what s/he has said are necessary skills, as well as being able to say things that the client will find difficult to hear. The following are skills specific to Psychodynamic counselling; Gaining informed consent involves informing the client of the nature, risks and benefits of counselling at the appropriate time; not so soon as to scare him/her away, but in good time. For this purpose it is advisable for the counsellor to be aware of when the assessment phase is concluding, as this is the best time to invite informed consent. The counsellor’s attention to the client is one element that facilitates change. The counsellor must alternate between close listening to the client and attention to how s/he will respond, alert to transference and counter transference. To be aware of both the conscious and unconscious elements of the client’s communication, the counsellor must practice ‘evenly suspended attention’. The counsellor must listen to unconscious communication as well as the explicit information the client is presenting. This includes being able to consider why the client is behaving and speaking as they are, linking this to issues arising in transference, and being able to raise such issues with the client. The counsellor will also make interpretations based on ‘extra transference’ – grasping connections between events, thoughts and behaviour unrelated to the client-counsellor relationship. The client’s experience Initially a client experiences the formal behaviour of the counsellor, sessions have boundaries of time, space, and confidentiality and these factors contribute to a sense of safety and predictability. The client should come to feel ‘held’ by the counselling experience, enabling him/her to feel able to explore painful issues and memories: â€Å"a safe space to lower one’s defences, be vulnerable and be held together.† Receiving a counsellor’s undivided attention contributes to this; Dibs In Search of Self illustrates an emotionally deprived child’s first experiences of undivided and non-judgemental attention, enabling him to blossom in self-discovery. A client goes through a process of developing informed consent, the transference relationship begins once enough trust is established, as it may be experienced as threatening. The client develops an attachment to the counsellor as someone who can help and care for them, and thus may become fearful both of their own needs and of being let down .The ending of the relationship can be painful for the client, and the counsellor should allow plenty of time to deal with issues around this. In conclusion, psychodynamic counselling functions to bring to awareness of the unconscious processes that govern the client’s inner life. A variety of practices are employed in order to supply a client with a sense of security as well as a source of challenge in order to facilitate positive change. References AXLINE, V. M., 1990. Dibs, In Search of Self. London: Penguin FREUD, A., 1937. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. London: Hogarth HOWARD, S., 2011. Psychodynamic Counselling in a Nutshell. 2nd edition. London: Sage. HOWE, D., 1993. On Being a Client. London: Sage

A declaration of war justify behaviour Essay

Whether or not the declaration of Just War justifies behaviour that is morally or legally unacceptable in peacetime depends firstly on the sort of behaviour we are talking about. There are a number of behaviours that are legally permitted in peacetime that many people would and do reject as morally unacceptable. This includes abortion, euthanasia and animal rights. The legal acceptability of these issues depends on the government, and varies from state to state. In this country, during peacetime it is acceptable to kill in self defence – for instance, if one’s house is being robbed and the burglar threatens the owner, the owner would not be penalized for shooting and killing the burglar. Pacifists object to all kinds of killing in both war and peacetime, whereas just war supporters try to draw parallels between civil justice and international justice in the attempt to justify certain behaviour. There are also behaviors such as propaganda, espionage and deliberate infringement of human rights that are more doubtful and are usually seen as unacceptable in peacetime. Certain examples of violent behaviour in peacetime in hindsight appear unacceptable, yet at the time those guilty were not prosecuted. There have been a number of incidents when armed Police officers have shot dead suspects who were not carrying a weapon. None of the police officers who killed those people were convicted. This is because killing in defence of innocent life is acceptable in peacetime, and the boundaries and conditions can be bended to suit the individual. Pacifists believe that therefore no killing can be acceptable on deontological grounds. Some religious people argue for the absolute sanctity of human life; they would say that ideally no incidental killings would take place if all killing was prohibited. Thus, this position would assume that a declaration of war does not justify any kind of killing either. Christian absolutists believe they are following the example of Jesus Christ by refusing to resort to violence, even if they have been treated cruelly. Therefore a declaration of just war would not be able to justify any unacceptable behaviour such as murder and violence – this would only further divide men, who are already divided by sin. Nevertheless, those who support the Just War theory believe that killing in the name of resisting an unjust oppressor is justifiable. The declaration of just war must be a proportionate response, and must discriminate between the guilty and the innocent. Oliver O’Donovan suggests war is an act of armed judgment and must be carried out by an unbiased judge to ensure its fairness. This judge must have a clear perspective on the gains and losses this act would entail and the final aim must be to bring about peace. In theory, military aggression is not defined by killing and violence. For instance, British troops that entered Iraq do not kill unless attack. Therefore killing is still self defence and this is no different to peacetime. Walzer thinks killing in self defence is justifiable and supports the theory of ‘legalist paradigm’. This means interstate justice basically reinforces the civil legal system, but on a larger scale – it is analogous. The right of a given state to defend itself must be accepted, just as an individual has the right to do the same. Walzer believed whichever side begins aggression to be automatically in the wrong. There is also the question of propaganda and whether it becomes appropriate to mislead people into thinking in a certain way in order for them to support the supposedly just war movement. In a healthy and functioning democracy during peacetime it is prohibited to lie to citizens or conceal the truth of political work. Some would argue that in wartime morale need to be boosted However, when a nation is at war, its citizens are often indoctrinated via mass media with the sort of messages that would disorientate their judgment and evoke hatred for ‘the enemy’. Propoganda can lead to disproportionate warfare and killings, therefore it cannot be justified. Human rights have always been an issue, for it is no certain whether it is morally right to deny someone the right to life in favour of another objective. From a utilitarian perspective, it would depend on whether the war was successful. If more people than soldiers killed are able to lead happy and fulfilled lives after the war ends, then it is acceptable to justify military confrontation in wartime. However, The High Court has recently decided that it soldiers human rights should not be overlooked either. This means the Ministry of Defence has to ensure the soldiers are not subjected to combat in intolerable heat or cold, and have functioning equipment. Certain equipment would be forbidden entirely, such as Nimrod planes. Of course, this would affect the damage potential of British troops, and possibly extend the war and subsequently take more lives. A utilitarian critic would ask whether in the long term this court order is going to cause more death and pain.

PHP Source Code Isnt Viewable; Only HTML Code

PHP Source Code Isnt Viewable; Only HTML Code With many websites, you can use your browser or another program to view the documents source code. This is a common occurrence  by viewers who want to see how a website developer accomplished a feature on a website. Anyone can view all the HTML that was used to create the page, but even if the web page contains PHP code, you can only view the HTML code and the results of the PHP code, not the code itself. Why PHP Code Isnt Viewable All PHP scripts are executed on the server before the website is delivered to the site viewer. By the time the data gets to the reader, all that is left is the HTML code. This is why a person cant go to a .php website page, save the file and expect it to work. They can save the HTML and see the results of PHP scripts, which are embedded inside the HTML after the code is executed, but the script itself is safe from curious eyes. Here is a test: The result is  PHP Code Test, but the code that generates it isnt viewable. Although you can see that there must be PHP code at work on the page, when you view the document source, you only see PHP Code Test because the rest is just instructions for the server and is not passed on to the viewer. In this  test scenario, only the text is sent to the users browser. The end user never sees the code.

Classical Management Style versus Scientific Management

Classical Management Style versus Scientific Management Signs and Symptoms of Incompetent Management Management incorporates the act of leading and controlling a group of people with an objective of attaining collective goals. Usually, organizations with perfect and effective management systems achieve marvelous results.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Classical Management Style versus Scientific Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The level of success of such organizations normally depends on the competency of their managers. Managers are integral components of any organization. They should be visionary and competent in their endeavors in order to realize remarkable results. This requires effective leadership skills (GIRIN, 2011). For example, declining profits within an organization (due to falling revenues and increasing expenses) signifies management’s incompetence. Employees underperform under incompetent managements. Disregarding the workers’ p references, poor motivational strategies, and lack of innovation are among other factors that employees’ performance. It is crucial to understand these provisions based on their viability, applicability, and other relevant frameworks. Reduced morale and weakened motivation within the workforce indicate an incompetent management. Incompetent managers are reluctant to employ highly qualified personnel. It is vital to consider these provisions when analyzing characteristics of incompetent leadership. Ineffective communication and poor feedback channels also portray managers with deprived competency. Concurrently, secrecy, gossip, and denying realities are other vital signs of incompetence (Jia,You, Du, 2012). Because of these, employees lose their trust in the management. Overconfidence is also a sign of management incompetence. Notably, such managers confuse accidental organizational success with their personal strategic radiance.Advertising Looking for essay on busine ss economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Incompetent managers are more likely to put the entire organizations into risky ventures. Particularly, these managers are more likely to push employees to effect risky ventures. Insufficient quality control may also be a sign of management’s incompetency. Defective products, intensive damages on goods, constant service interruptions, and high rates of client complaints are associated with insufficient quality control (GIRIN, 2011). These emerge due to lack of employee motivation and dedication to duty. Poor client services from employees might also emanate from management incompetence. It is observable that several signs or symptoms of incompetent management remain evident in most organizations. The Classical Management Style versus Scientific Management Classical management refers to the management based on the conviction that workers have economic and physical demands. According to this management style, workers’ social requirements and demands for job fulfillment is unimportant. This management style lobby for increased labor specialization, centralized decision processes, and profit making. Being the oldest management strategy, classical management is specifically interested in the increase of efficiency, both for the employees and the organization (Jia, You, Du, 2012). Basically, the style majorly deals with the universal operational guidelines while endeavoring for monetary efficiency. It embodies scientific, administrative, and bureaucratic management. Scientific management concentrates on a particular and modest manner of doing specific jobs. Scientific management depends on the theory that examines work processes with an aim of improving the general labor productivity (GIRIN, 2011). It involves the organizational management according to the efficiency principles drawn from empirical investigations on the work as well as production methodologies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Classical Management Style versus Scientific Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As potentiated by Taylor, scientific management suggests that resolutions, which are dependent on dictatorship and tradition, must be replaced with concise processes developed from analysis of specific situations. Thus, it can be noted that classical management is more repressive than scientific management (Paulus Yang, 2000). In scientific management, it is believed that basic jobs can be planned adequately to increase productivity. It is critical to understand these provisions in the context of effective management. Notably, scientific management is extremely effective when considered in diverse contexts. Unlike classical management, scientific management depends largely on the empirical analysis of situations. The distinction between scientific and behavioral theories is clearly depicted within different organizations. Whilst scientific theory stresses on the importance of empirical analysis of the work processes, behavioral theories examine the actual performance competency of leaders (GIRIN, 2011). According to behavioral theory, good managers can be molded. There is an assumption that an effective leadership depends on an identifiable and learnable behavior. I have severally experienced behavioral theory in the course of my work. For instance, presently in my organization, the senior managers started learning in their various departments as trainees through apprenticeship. In this practice, there is a clear depiction that leadership competencies may be learned. This is unlike the widespread belief that leadership competencies are inherent.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References GIRIN, J. (2011). Empirical Analysis of Management Situations: Elements of Theory and Method. European Management Review. 8: 197–212. Jia, L., You, S. and Du, Y. (2012). Chinese Context and Theoretical Contributions to Management and Organization Research: A Three-decade Review. Management and Organization Review. 8: 173–209. Paulus, P. and Yang, H. (2000). Idea Generation in Groups: A Basis for Creativity in Organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 82:76–87.

DETECTION OF ANTIVIRAL ANTIBODIES IN SERUM USING AN ELISA TECHNIQUE Essay

DETECTION OF ANTIVIRAL ANTIBODIES IN SERUM USING AN ELISA TECHNIQUE - Essay Example These immunoglobulins are of five types and they are different based on size, charge, amino acid composition and carbohydrate content. the class and the type of immunoglobulin molecule is determined by the heavy chain type. There are two light chains and two heavy chains. There are C and N- terminal in the heavy chains. (Crowther 1995). The N-terminals of the IgG constitute the antigen -binding site. Individuals can become resistant to many infectious diseases by active or passive immunization. The beneficial effects of the immunization are mediated by the antibodies and the effect of immunization is mediated by the immunoassays. (Crowther 2001). The measurement of the antigen and antibody by using sensitive assays are the useful indicators of the immune status. When an infectious agent enters the human body, the component is identified as the foreign particle and antibodies are produced against them. These antibodies interact with the antigens and reduce the load. (Edwards 1999). Th e immunoassay method identifies the antigens, antigen - particles present in the blood and provide the results. Each antibody is specific for an antigen. ELISA is basically of two types: competitive and non-competitive ELISA. ELISA involves two site recognition with two different antibodies (i.e.) an indirect estimation. Competitive ELISA is different from the sandwich ELISA and indirect ELISA. In the first step the unlabelled antibody is incubated on the presence of the antigen. This antigen-antibody bounded is added to the antigen- coated well. The plate is washed and the second antibody specific to the primary antibody is added and the second antibody is coupled to the enzyme. When the substrate is added, the signal is emitted by the remaining enzyme. In this ELISA, if the antigen concentration is very high, then the signal will be very weak. This method is mainly used to test the impure and crude samples. This method is very useful for the detection of HIV. For HIV diagnosis, th e patient's sample and the enzyme-labeled antibody (conjugate) is added simultaneously to the solid phase. HIV antibodies, if present in the sample will bind to the conjugate antibody and reduce the signal. Thus if the color reaction is produced, then it indicates that there are no HIV antibodies in the given sample. Applications of ELISA include screening of the donated blood for viral contaminations( HIV types, Hepatitis B and C, HTLV-1 and 2), measuring the hormone levels( pregnancy(HCG), ovulation( LH), thyroid function ( TSH, T3 and T4), anabolic steroids, hormones), detecting infections( HIV, syphilis, chlamydia, gondii), detecting allergens in foods and toxins in foods, measuring the concentration of the antibodies and detecting illicit drugs ( cocaine, opiates, marijuana, etc.), measuring auto antibodies in autoimmune diseases and measuring rheumatoid factors . (Sheehan 1997). (Wreghitt and Morgan-Capner 1990). Principle When an antibody is linked to the enzyme and allowed t o react with the immobilized antigen, antigen-antibody reaction occurs. This is identified by the production of colour by the substrate enzyme reaction. The antigen is immobilised in either a microtiter plate or on nitrocellulose membrane. An enzyme labelled antibody is added in excess to the system and these binds to the immobilised antigen. Excess antibody is removed by washing and the substrate specific for the

Issues of Faculty Training for Online Courses Part 5 Research Paper

Issues of Faculty Training for Online Courses Part 5 - Research Paper Example Stratified sampling is suitable in this research since it has less error margins(Bogdan, &Biklen, 2007). After selection using the stratified sampling meaning people with similar interests, an adequate number is again chosen from the original sample. The number has to be adequate to ensure that the group involved has taken a sample of every significant personfor the interview. For example the number should consist of both teachers and students and not only teacher or students or an uneven number. We could use the sample size calculator to determine the sample size but in this instance we shall chose the estimation means(Ryan & Wiley Online Library, 2013). In this case we shall estimate the students and teachers below fifty years of age. The formula will be p=X/n where X is the number of teachers and students under fifty years(Ardilly&TilleÃŒ , 2006). The rationale behind this sample size is that people above fifty years are not keen or active to use online facilities frequently. In this stage, a clear and brief description of measurements needed is stated. For example in this case the sample size to be used. Secondly, selection of researchers is done. These researchers are then thoroughly trained. Thirdly, the research must be underway with trained researchers reporting and taking down data. Finally, the data must be recorded clearly so that it can be used for the purpose of the research. Here the data is sorted, separated and entered into a computer. Any audio visual material used can be transcribed at this stage. Observation of data and deducing the meaning is then performed on the sorted data. Finally, the use of qualitative and quantitative data sorting is done on the data(Seidman, 2013). Statistical analysis is only performed on quantitative data as it can be counted while qualitative cannot be counted(Seidman, 2013). Statistical analysis can be done through normal counting, observations of