Auditing(Control activities and related assertions) Essay

Auditing(Control activities and related assertions) - Essay Example Type of control is C (physical controls). This is because the control pertains to cash, which is vulnerable to loss or theft.. This is one of the physical controls that can be utilized to secure the cash of the company. The assertion here is existence because this verifies the physical existence of the cash as of the date of the count. It also pertains to the completeness assertion as it ensures that the amount of cash counted is completely recorded in the cash register. This is a B (segregation of duties) type of control because it separates the person responsible for approval of overtime work from the employees who will do the overtime. This can also be an A – 2 (application control – input) because it ensures that the inputs to the system (overtime work) have been duly-approved by a higher authority prior to their entry in the data system. This is an A – 2 (application control – output) control because it verifies the accuracy of the voucher which was generated by the system. It may also be a B (segregation of duties) type of control because another person is responsible for reviewing the document and the transaction. The assertions addressed here are existence, occurrence and accuracy because the review of the voucher ensures that the liability actually exists or the expenses are actually incurred since it will entail checking against source documents or files and that the amount in the voucher is proper or correct. The assertions addressed here are existence and occurrence as maintaining the integrity of the records through restricting access will ensure that the transactions with employees (which affect cash, liability and expenses) are valid and existing. This is a B (segregation of duties) control because a person of higher authority reviews the results of the input of those responsible for making the entries. It may also be an A – 2 (application control – processing) control because it checks the classification of the accounts

Nucor Corporation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Nucor Corporation - Case Study Example Generically, a value strategy is the pattern of decisions and actions that constitute the firm's overall approach toward providing realizable net value to customers. A value strategy inherently involves all parts of a firm's functional and organizational strategies that provide value realized by customers or require sacrifices by customers (see Appendix Table 1) Nucor follows a four-part growth strategy to increase its production capacities and quality that improve product quality. This strategy: "involves new acquisitions, new plant construction, continued plant upgrades and cost reduction efforts, and joint ventures" (Thompson et al 2008 p. C 115). Despite the use of strategic management process and content models, many managers fail to maintain or improve their firm's competitive position. The new globally competitive context requires that top management alter its current predispositions toward certain stakeholders and financial performance measures and refocus on continuously improving net customer value. "By 1985, Nucor had become the seventh largest steel company in Alnerica, with revenues of $758 million. With 18 plants having the capacity to produce 25 million tons of steel annually, 2006 revenues of$14.8 billion, and net profits of$I.8 billion" Thompson et al 2008 p. C-113). These changes suggest new strategic management processes and new strategy content paralleling those in current models. All firms have a value strategy, but few have completely conceptualized and clearly articulated value as the basis for competing. In fact, many firms are more competitor-oriented than customer-oriented. As a result, many managers are more familiar with their firm's competitive strategy than its strategy for improving customer value. Some inadvertently compromise net customer value either by producing products/services perceived to be of low quality or by requiring excessively high sacrifices of customers. Ironically, the most competitive firms are the customer-oriented, not the competitor-oriented firms. In financial terms, "new plant construction and boosting tons sold from 11.2 million in 2000 to 22.1 million in 2006" (Thompson 2008, p. C114). The uniqueness of Nucor is the synergistic combination of low cost and differentiation that may come with a value-based strategy is a direct result of managing critical systems that contribute to value. For Nucor, the acquisition process is limited to broadening the product line is erroneous (Nucor Corporation 2008). Many other business goals can be fulfilled by acquisition. These include strengthening the company's financial position, procuring the services of one or more key personnel or new executive talent, obtaining land, buildings, and equipment for expansion, stabilizing cyclical or seasonal types of business, avoiding concentration in a government-regulated area of industry, acquiring the technical skills of highly trained scientists, and many other critical elements in business which determine growth and success. The process of acquisition, then, is one that ought to be considered by the management of any enterprise as its plans for growth are executed (see Appendix Table 3, 4). Acquisition is one way to be considered in achieving the complete set of defined objectives. And many companies have found it a very satisfactory way. Annual report shows that acquisition strategy allows the company to achieve a steady growth and increase its

Describe how you would motivate members of the organization to adapt Research Proposal

Describe how you would motivate members of the organization to adapt and accept continuous change - Research Proposal Example In order to unfreeze these prevailing norms, or the status quo, overcoming resistance among individuals and conformity among groups is crucial. In Lewin’s model, the shift to a desired state can be done by one of the three: lowering the restraining forces to change; increasing the driving forces to get into the desired state; or both. The change in leadership entails a new vision. And in order to carry out this vision, there are specific steps the new leadership lays out which will be the cause of individual resistances within the corporation. The first alternative is to increase the driving forces. Driving forces usually come in the form of incentive, for employees to accept and comply to change. It may assume other forms, but driving forces are the usual motivating forces behind the transition. Another alternative is to decrease the restraining forces to change. As change prompts uncertainty, people tend to protect their interests and resort into power struggles. By eliminating these sorts of restraining forces in the form of employee counseling, seminars and educational programs, forces that hinder change due to individual resistance can be neutralized. In the extreme cases where the resistance is high, status quo can be unfreezed by combining the two approaches: eliminating the restraining forces, and increasing the driving forces. In this way, the incentive to accept change plus measures to lower down the resistance among employees will work in order to unfreeze the status quo. When the status quo is unfreezed, and employees are set for the change that is to happen within the company, the new leadership can enact the changes. When new leadership entails new vision for the company, the changes that may come can include changes in the corporate objectives, thus there will be changes in corporate strategies. These changes in strategies usually require changes in organizational structure and a change in the

The rate of photosynthesis in the elodea Essay Example for Free

The rate of photosynthesis in the elodea Essay Put the boiling tube in a beaker surrounded by ice. Ensure the thermometer is standing upright in the beaker.   Note the initial temperature and maintain this throughout the experiment, either by means of adding or reducing the ice content.   Place the electric bench lamp towards the elodea specimen   Allow the elodea specimen to settle for five minutes or so.   On the fifth minute start timing for a further five minutes and count the amount of bubbles observed. Note: The same procedure must be carried out for the other two experiments, only altering the content outside the boiling tube. In order to keep the water temperature at 45o C, it is advised that cool water or some heated water (from the kettle) is added depending on the temperature observed. Prediction: I predict that when the elodea specimen is placed in ice, a few (one or two) oxygen bubbles will be observed, therefore photosynthesis will be limited. When the elodea specimen is placed in water at 45o C, more bubbles will be seen and hence the rate of photosynthesis will increase At room temperature, some bubbles will be seen but much less compared to the 45o C investigation, since the temperature is in between. Results: Ice: Time (minutes). Number of bubbles observed 1 1 2 1 3 3 4 0 5 0 Total: 5 Water maintained at 45o C: Time (minutes) Number of bubbles observed 1 3 2 10 3 12 4 3 5 1 Total: 29 Water at room temperature (tap water): Time (minutes) Number of bubbles observed 1 0 2 2 3 3 4 3 5 3 Total: 11 Discussion: From looking at my results, it appears to be that my prediction is reasonably accurate. As mentioned in my prediction, a few bubbles were observed when the elodea was placed in ice. This is because the cells within the elodea specimen eventually die. This can be explained by the concept of enzymes, which operate best at optimum temperatures. Placing the elodea in a cold environment, such as ice means that the temperature is extremely below the optimum. This inevitable leads to enzyme denaturation and only some bubbles are seen during the first two minutes prior to the denaturation. Consequently, there is some photosynthesis taking place. When the elodea cell is placed in water which is maintained at 45o C, the number of bubbles sighted increase rapidly (particularly in the second and third minutes). Notice for the fourth and the fifth minutes, the number of bubbles observed start to decline. This may well be to the fact that the temperature was not controlled as intended, and possibly exceeded 45o C, thus causing the enzyme to denature. Hence a decrease in photosynthesis is observed. When the elodea specimen is placed in water at room temperature, the number of bubbles observed are more or less the same. This is because the temperature of the water is fairly below the optimum, (which is believed to be 45o C) and therefore the rate of photosynthesis is limited. Evaluation: Despite the results fairly matching the prediction, the method used is rather unreliable. More repeats (i.e. three repeats) could have been put into practice as this would have allowed me to calculate an average and hence raising the reliability of the results. The temperature range is rather limited and so the results would have been more accurate by employing a variety of temperatures. This would have allowed me to pin-point exactly the optimum temperature of the enzyme, which is involved in photolysis. Looking at the results above, there was an incidence where the temperature was not properly controlled (the ice investigation in which 3 bubbles were noted in the third minute). I believe using a water bath would have allowed me to maintain the temperatures more precisely and save time as oppose to using a kettle. I recall whilst doing the experiment that the elodea specimen was placed somewhat close to the window. Light from the sun could have also played an important part of distorting the results because an increase in light intensity also contributes to an increase rate in photosynthesis. Therefore if this experiment is to be carried out again, it would be ideal to make use of the window blinds. Not forgetting to mention that the distance between the bench lamp and the elodea specimen was not fixed, and was varied during each investigation. This might have caused a slight degree of anomaly in the results. Having acknowledged this inconsistency has made me aware of what is required in the actual investigation. It can be argued that counting the number of bubbles can be deceiving and therefore another method should be put into consideration. An alternative way of doing the same experiment more accurately can be achieved by using a photosynthometer. A freshly cut strand of the plant is suspended upside down in a boiling tube. The healthy strand of elodea produces bubbles of oxygen gas when brightly illuminated (i. e. with a bench lamp 10 cm away from the elodea specimen) at different temperatures. The bubbles emerge from the cut end of the stem and are collected in a bulb at the base of the apparatus. From here, the oxygen gas can be drawn into the capillary tube by means of the syringe. The volume of oxygen gas collected in five minutes gives a direct measurement of the rate photosynthesis. Apparatus and Justification: Apparatus Justification of Apparatus x1 Clamp stand (with capillary tube). A lot of apparatus are involved, some of which that need to be held at a constant height above the water bath (i. e. the boiling tube with the elodea specimen). x1 Capillary tube with ruler.   Used to measure the length of the oxygen bubble(s).   Hence the volume of oxygen can be calculated. x1 Boiling tube   The use of a boiling tube is necessary as oppose to a test tube because its large enough to allow the elodea specimen to fit in with ease. x1 Elodea Canadensis specimen (10 cm long)   The elodea specimen is the basis for this investigation.   Allows the hypothesis to be tested. x1 5 ml syringe A 5 ml syringe is necessary to allow oxygen bubbles to be drawn in the capillary tube. No other apparatus can be substituted for this task. x1 30 cm Ruler   Used to measure the length of the elodea specimen, making sure that the length is constant for each investigation. To ensure a fair test. x1 Scalpel Used to cut the elodea specimen to the desired length with precision. x1 Plastic Tile   To aid in cutting the elodea specimen. To prevent any damage to the work bench. x1 Electric bench lamp with 100W filament bulb   Used to ensure a fair test as every investigation will be illuminated by a lamp at a set distance. To ensure the results are not influenced by light intensity but solely the temperature. x1 Thermometer   Used to ensure the temperature of water bath is correct, and hence to promote reliability of results. x1 Stopwatch   Used for timing the investigation for 10 minutes (five minutes for the settling of the elodea specimen and another five minutes for the investigation). x1 Beaker and ice blocks   To be used for the 0o C investigation.   To see if there is any photosynthesis evident at freezing level. Proposed Method: Diagram12: 1. Set up the clamp stand as shown above. 2. Get hold of a plastic tile and a scalpel and cut the elodea specimen at a length of 10 cm. 3. The cut end has to be inserted into the calibrated capillary tube as shown above. 4. Lower the capillary tube into the water bath, ensuring half of the boiling tube (containing the elodea specimen) is immersed in the water. 5. Place the bench lamp 10 cm away from the boiling tube. Ensure the light is directly facing the elodea specimen. 6. After setting all the apparatus up, pull the syringe on top of the capillary tube in order for the water to get into the capillary tube. This removes any air bubbles initially present in the capillary tube. 7. Place the thermometer into the water bath (or beaker in the case of the ice investigation) and turn the light on. The elodea must be allowed to settle for five minutes. 8. Time the investigation for a further five minutes by using a stopwatch. 9. On completion of the five minutes, switch the lamp off and remove the clamp stand along with the rest of the apparatus out of the water bath. 10. Pull the syringe to draw the oxygen bubbles into the capillary tube and measure the length of the bubble(s) simultaneously by making use of the ruler. 11. Note down the length of the bubble(s) on paper. 12. Repeat the same procedure three times for each temperature using the same elodea specimen. 13. Once the three trials are complete, move on to the next temperature. and carry out steps 1 -13 Ice investigation:   Get hold of the elodea specimen and place it in the boiling tube.   Put the boiling tube in a beaker surrounded by ice.   Note the initial temperature and maintain this throughout the experiment, either by means of adding or reducing the ice content.   Follow steps 5-13 above. Note: If an anomalous result is encounter during the duration of the experiment, it is advised to do that particular investigation again. Acknowledgements: 12- Diagram modified from A-Level biology Revised Edition by W D Phillips and T J Chilton, page 69. Analysis of Variables: Independent variable: The independent variable is the variable, which has to be manipulated in order to get the desired results. In this case, the independent variable is the temperature of the water baths. To obtain more accurate results, I have included temperature readings ranging from 0-65o C, in intervals of five. Three readings will be taken for each temperature and compared. Dependent variable: This is the variable which responds to the fixed conditions and which is used to test the hypothesis. In this case, the dependent variable is the volume of oxygen released by the elodea specimen. The length of the oxygen bubble(s) is going to be measured at the end of the five minute interval. This can be used to deduct the volume of oxygen produced by multiplying the length of the bubble(s) by pie, which is then multiplied by 0. 82 Fixed variables: These are variables, which have to be kept constant throughout the experiment in order to obtain accurate results. These variables cannot be manipulated at any time of the experiment. Some of the fixed variables are listed below: The light intensity (distance between the bench lamp and the elodea specimen): This can be kept constant by ensuring the elodea specimen is 10 cm away from the bench lamp. It may well be convenient reassure the distance with a ruler. The preliminary work I did have done has highlighted that 10 cm happens to be an ideal distance for sufficient photosynthesis to be followed and thus reliable results can be obtained. However if the distance between the bench lamp and elodea specimen is shorter than 10 cm, then this will have a major impact on the results. The increase in light intensity shall inevitably results in an increase in the volume of oxygen noted and thus distorting the results. Similarly if the distance is greater than 10 cm, then this decrease in light intensity shall contribute to a decrease in rate of photosynthesis and thence slowing down the rate at which the oxygen bubble(s) are released13. Therefore it is vital that this distance is kept constant throughout the experiment to ensure a fair test. * The number of leaves on the Elodea plant: The number of leaves will be kept constant throughout the whole experiment by using the same elodea specimen. The reason for keeping the same number of leaves is to ensure that the surface area provided by the leaves is the same in each investigation. Having the same number of leaves will provide the same surface area. If the number of leaves were different in each new investigation, then the number of leaves would be the independent variable. The more leaves there are the larger the surface area, and more light energy will be trapped by the leaves and a greater proportion of it will be converted into chemical energy14. Therefore more oxygen will be given off. On the other hand, a fewer amount of leaves shall results in a low yield of oxygen. In both cases, the results will be distorted if not controlled. Acknowledgements: 13- Letts Revise A2 Biology by John Parker, page 26 14- Revise A2 biology by Richard Fosbery and Jennifer Gregory; page 21 Reliability: To obtain more reliable results, three measurements would be taken in the same condition. The reason for this is that if in case, an error was made on the first attempt, the error can be amended and on the second attempt. After doing the experiment, if any of the results are anomalous then the experiment should be repeated. Results obtained can be compared to the previous results to see if there is an agreement. Light from the sun can also play an important part of distorting the results because an increase in light intensity also contributes to an increase rate in photosynthesis. Therefore it would be ideal to make use of the window blinds to promote reliability of results. Temperatures are monitored precisely by the water baths. However it is sometimes observed that the temperature of the water bath goes up or down by a degree or two. The temperature can be maintained by means of adding or removing ice to the water baths. Due to the limited number of water baths, there may well be the case of sharing a water bath to five others. This means five additional bench lamps would have an impact on my results (as light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis). The lamps may also contribute to the water baths getting hotter than required. Therefore it would be wise to carry out the investigation individually. When the apparatus are set up, the syringe (on top of the capillary tube) must be pulled to draw the water into the capillary tube. This will remove any air bubbles initially present in the capillary tube and thus leaving no ambiguity. Results: Table: showing the results I obtained during the investigation Temperature (o C) Length of Oxygen bubble (mm) Volume of Oxygen (mm) Rate of photosynthesis (mm3/min) Average rate of photosynthesis (mm3/min).

Prototype Modeling of Smart Grid Technology at Ciit Lahore

Prototype Modeling of Smart Grid Technology at Ciit Lahore CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Definition: The smart grid system is vast collection of technologies to provide an electricity network having the ability to solve the major issues related to reliability, cost effectiveness of electric power and decentralization or grid dependency The smart grid technology using renewable energy sources transferred electricity towards user side with the concept of integration of renewable energy sources. 1.1.2 Why Smart Grid Technology Adopted The demand of electricity is increased so much by the passage of time, which creates some major problems related to conventional electricity network. By 2020 energy demand will be doubled from the present demand [1]. Smart grid is the result of such efforts which are performed to make availability of electricity more reliable, economical and user friendly with the concept of decentralized network due to two way communication of electricity through network[2]. The Architectural model of a 21st century power system that interconnects everyone to affordable, abundant, clean, reliable, and efficient electricity anytime, anywhere. The purpose of Smart Grid is also to integrate several renewable resources with our national Grid and enhances the efficiency; reliability and thus providing a hassle free Transmission of electric power. It also contributes to reduce carbon emissions and providing a pollution free environment. 1.2 Back Ground 1.2.1 The European Development in the Area of Smart Grid In the next three decades European member state will expend about 750 billion in power infrastructure. This amount will expend on generation and networks. The European Technology plate form was developed in 2005 to solve the problems of Network Owners, operators and users[3]. 1.2.2 Smart Grid Development in USA In USA the Smart grid developments initiated during first Bush Administration[4]. In 2002 a DOE study describes the hundred of million of Dollar spent In US power systems on transmission practices and results a proposal of construction of transformed national electricity grid upto2030 providing the best and secure transmission of electricity[5]. 1.2.3 Smart Grid Development in Australia Under the Energy Transformed Flagship the Intelligent Grid Program was launched on 19 Aug, 2008. This Program researched in the fields of Control methodologies and economic modeling for distributed generation, Social impact of Intelligent grid, New housing developments and micro grids[6]. 1.3 Design Description 1.3.1 Features of Smart Grid The most important features of Smart Grid Technology are: Integration of Renewable Sources Battery Storage option Provide electric power to both AC and DC loads Advance Monitoring 1.3.2 Proposed Methodology Above figure shows prototype modeling of smart grid system at micro level along with the integration of several renewable energy resources such as small wind plant and solar panels. The charge controllers are special devices used for the purpose to control the abrupt change in voltage and stop the reverse flow of current towards PV or wind turbine systems, and also control the charging and discharging of batteries. An integrator is also one of the most important components of our project. The function of this device to integrate powers from both energy sources in a way that during operating time of the sources loads will directly get power from these sources and at night or the time when these sources are not operating loads are facilitated through battery banks. 1.4 Advantages of Smart Grid A. Motivates and Includes the Consumer Smart Grid is a end user device it motivates the consumer to generate a free source of electricity and to utilize it in household appliances when electricity from Grid is not available. B. Provides Power Quality for 21st Century Needs It provides power free of disturbance, sags, interruptions and spikes. C. Markets Opportunities Smart grid supports energy markets that encourage both investment and innovation. D. Operates Efficiently and Optimizes Assets Smart grid is easy to install infrastructure, transmit more power through existing systems and optimizes easily with present grid. E. Reduction in cost of power infrastructure When renewable energy sources are infused into the power grid, end-use demands can be adjusted to available power supplies. The ability to manage and reduce peak demands demolishes the need for costly peaking and â€Å"just-in-case† power infrastructure. F. Reduced use of polluting plants Some existing powerplants are not environment friendly which is adversely affecting the environment around us. Smart grid can produce pollution free generation of electricity. G. Clean power market During serious air pollution alerts, power plants and heavy industries sometimes shut down. Smart Grid ensures you clean power options. H. Energy storage Smart Grid is also equipped with battery backup options which not only stores energy also used as grid shock absorbers as well. I. Integrate able with Energy Resources and Storage Options The system also enables plug-and-play interconnection to multiple energy resources and storage devices (e.g. solar, wind, battery storage, etc.) 1.5 Brief Introduction to chapters Chapter 2 This chapter is a survey report about renewable energy sources. Also wind and solar characteristics of Pakistan are given in this chapter. Supply and Demand gap also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3 This chapter is about PV system. Complete introduction and types of PV system are discussed also given here the architecture model of PV system with design description. And the experimental values also mentioned in this chapter. Chapter 4 This chapter defines the wind turbine specifications. Chapter starts from introduction then history discussed and after that design description is completely described. The experimental values also given in this chapter with advantages and drawbacks of wind turbine technology. Chapter 5 This chapter covers the remaining portion of smart grid technology. First of all integrator is discussed with design after that charge controller and power inverters also discussed with there design and circuitry. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY Contents: World Wide Survey of Renewable Energy Demand Supply Gap in Pakistan Depletion in Oil and Gas Energy Sources in Pakistan Wind Energy Solar Energy 2.1 World Wide Survey of Renewable Energy Renewable energy has an essential contribution in world energy generation. So many projects are under consideration regarding to renewable energy. 2.1.1 Global Status Report This report describes the market condition, investment and targets as well as policies. The report doesnt describe analysis or conclusions, though it reveals some extra ordinary facts regarding the renewable energy . By the end of 2005 only 45 countries were included in the achievement of renewable energy targets which are increased up to 76 in 2009. According to this report last year was the best era for renewable energy. Capacity in developing countries grew to 119GW, or 43% of the total. Including Pakistan and magnolia less or more than 8-0 countries has started plantation of wind power plants at commercial measures[7]. Some achievements of the year 2008 are: In just 1 year the capacity of solar photovoltaic plants tripled to 3 GW from 200 KW. Wind power by 29% and solar hot water increased by 15%. Grid connected photovoltaic systems increased up to 13GW, wind energy grew up to 250%, 121GW and total power generation capacity from renewable energy boost up to 75%. Spain becomes the super power in the field of grid connected PV systems with inclusion of 2.6GW. Germany also takes some handy steps and added 1,5GW in their system. Some other developed countries also provide large contributions like USA(3ooMW), Italy ( 300MW) , South Korea ( 270MW) and Japan (240MW) respectively . in total 16GW is the generation of solar including off-grid by 2009 worldwide. Table2.1 Energy Added and Exists in 2009-2010 2.2 Demand Supply gap in Pakistan If we give a look at demand supply graph then we will come to know that the difference between demand and supply is becoming wider and wider by the passage of time .the scenario in 3rd world countries is totally discriminated e.g. Pakistan. Needs are increasing exponentially but we are desperately lacking in finding out a good solution. if we have an eye view we may find 3 reasons of demand supply gap. Increase in prices of oil and gas , increase in population and increase in cost of energy . 2.2.1 Energy Demand With the increase in population energy requirements are also increasing. All the industry and the production of our daily need in dependent upon electricity . 2.2.2 Energy Supply Current eras total production of energy does not meet the current requirement of energy , though the end results are critical in the sense of increase in demand supply gap . Serious steps are needed to be 2.2.3 Energy cost If we have eye view on last few decades we will come to see the highlighted reduction in the reserves of oil and natural gas, which causes the increase in the cost of per unit production of electricity. This is also the reason of widening the demand supply gap. 2.2.4 Sustainability level The systems which are to be used for the generation of electricity must be stable, but unfortunately we have not surety of sustainability level of present system and the graph is gradually decreasing according to our present and future demands . This decrease in sustainability may overcome by using alternative techniques. 2.3 Depletion in oil and gas A large amount of electricity is being produced by fossil fuels and the present value of electricity generated by fossil fuels is increasing. According to the European energy commission and International energy the present reservoirs of oil and gas are not sufficient enough to meet the future requirements. so as the result after 10-12 years we have the depletion in the percentage of Oil using for the generation of electricity as shown in fig 2.2. As from the above it is obvious that from 1930 to one word till 2010 there is continuous growth in both oil and gas reserves but after 2010 there is deep declined. If the above graph follows the same pattern there is near future we will be totally dependent upon alternates of energy generation. 2.4 ENERGY SOURCES IN PAKISTAN The primary energy supplies today are not enough to meet even the present demand. More, a very large part of rural area does not have the electricity facilities because they are too expensive to be connected to the national grid. So, Pakistan like other developing countries in the region is facing a severe challenge in energy deficit. The development of renewable energy sources can play an important role in meeting such challenge. If we see around yourself Pakistan best suits for Solar (PV, thermal), water, wind and Wastes. These are the best renewable sources and Pakistan doesnt lack these. Pakistan can b benefited from these as substitute energy in areas where these renewable sources exist. Renewable energy Fossil fuels Nuclear power 2.4.1 Renewable energy It is energy which is produced by natural sources such as wind rain solar and geothermal heat. 2.4.1.1 Types of renewable Energy Wind Biomass Solar Wave and tidal Geothermal These all sources are best placed in Pakistan and we are not lacking in any at all , thus we can produce great amount of energy using these renewable sources , Capturing renewable energy by animals , plants and humans does not permanently deplete the resource. Fossil fuels are renewable but on a very long time-scale, are exploited at rates that may deplete these resources in the near future. 2.4.2 Fossil Fuels It includes natural gas, oil and coal . fossil fuels are lacking in Pakistan as well the world therefore renewable sources are needed to meet th essential needs 2.5 Wind Energy Wind energy is one of the best of renewable sources and probably suits Pakistan atmosphere at peak. As our project is related to wind energy as well. In Pakistan wind energy projects are working under the Pakistan Meteorological Dept with the financial collaboration of Ministry of Science and Technology which are accomplishing many such projects in Pakistan. About 3% of the total Pakistans land area is termed as good to excellent for utility scale production of electricity. Fig2.3. shows the variations of wind speeds in different areas of Pakistan Average wind speed in Lahore is 3m/s as shown in Fig.2.4 . Therefore for the prototype smart Grid system, average wind speed must exceeds the theoretical values as given in[10]. 2.6 Solar energy Its one of the types of renewable energies, as in our project we are working on solar energy, in photovoltaic system solar cells covert sun radiation to DC electricity. The provinces of Sindh , Punjab and Baluchistan and the Thar desert are specially suited for the utilization of solar energy. The solar statistics in Pakistan is highly favourable for energy generation. According to Fig2.5. the South western province offers perfect condition for utilization of solar energy. Since Pakistan locates near the equator so it has relatively high UV index as compared to other regions of the World. The solar characteristics graph in the Lahore region is shown in Fig. 2.6. Lahore city also offers suitable condition for harnessing solar energy The average sunlight hours lies between 7 to 8 hours per day which is approximately 2700 hours per annually. Graph in Fig. 3 shows the UV index of Lahore during a day time in the month of April. Usually the radiation intensity has its maximum value at noon .And value of solar radiation reaches its maximum value during the mid of summers. Chapter No 3 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM Contents: Introduction to solar panels History of PV system Photovoltaic Cell Architecture Implementation of PV system Battery 3.1 Introduction: Solar cell or photovoltaic cell is the device use to convert sunlight into electricity. It works on the basic principle of photovoltaic effect. 3.1.1 Photovoltaic effect When the photons of light falls on the semiconductor material. The photons try to knockout the electrons from the conduction bands. As the energy gap between valence and conduction band increases and when a sufficient amount of energy is projected by the light photons .the electrons knocked out from their respective atom and started to move freely. These free electrons moves towards n-side and holes created due to the deficiency of electrons in this region moves towards p-side to recombine themselves .This difference of potential allows the flow of current. The PV cell absorbs incoming light photons in p-type. This p-type layer should be synchronized in such a way that it can absorb as many as photons possible and set free as many as electrons possible, to make a radiant flow of current. In order to make and efficient flow solar cell , the surface of the cell should be kept rough to maximize the absorption of photons while reflection should be minimized in this way maximum conduction can be achieved 3.2 History The photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories. The first highly efficient solar cell was developed by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson in year 1954 using a diffused silicon p-n junction. Firstly, cells were developed for toys and other minor uses, as the cost of their production was very high. Design of solar cells is improved day by day to utilize it for more applications. The applications for that solar panels are used are different and there are three levels of generation 3.2.1 First Generation: First generation cells are single junction devices and they have large area also having high quality with reduction in production cost 3.2.2 Second Generation: These materials are developed to address energy requirements and production cost. They reduce high temperature processing as vapour deposition, electroplating and Ultrasonic nozzles. 3.2.3 Third Generation: The aimof these technologies is to improve poor electrical performance of second generation technologies with low production cost. 3.3 Photovoltaic cell architecture A PV module consists of a silicon cell .These cell are connected in series or parallel manner in order to produce desired voltage and current .Inside a PV cell a circuit is present that is sealed from the envoi metal protective lamination .A PV panel consists of one or more modules joined together. Finally these panels are combined to make a single PV array which is a complete electricity producing unit. The performance of a PV array or its modules is rated by its maximum throughput power under S.T.C (Standard Test Condition).STC is defined as when a PV modulecell is operated under 25  °C (77F), with an incident solar irradiation of 1000 W/m2 with the spectral distribution of 1.5 air mass. These are the perfect condition for a PV module to operate in , but in actual the performance of a PV module is almost 80 to 90 percent of its STC rating. The operating lifetime of a PV module is between 20 to 30 years .Most of the manufactures offers warranty of 20 or more years of its DC output power to a sustainable amount .PV modules are also lice censed under (UL) qualification test for its reliability checks. 3.3.1 Types of Solar Cell Now a days there are various types of cell materials are developed. Multi junction PV cells are made in order to increase the cell efficiency while decreasing its volume and weight. But they are far more expensive then an ordinary silicon cells. The maximum efficiency of a PV cell is achieved almost to 30 percent by doping different intrinsic material together .Example of the exotic materials are Gallium arsenide and Indium serenade etc. However silicon cells are the most common and widely used PV cells. There are three major types of Silicon cell: Amorphous silicon solar Cell or Thin Film Cell Mono-crystalline Wafers Poly crystalline Cell Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell Amorphous technology is often seen in small devices, such as those in garden lamps or calculators, although amorphous panels are also increasingly used in other larger applications. They are formed by depositing a thin film of silicon onto a sheet of different material such as steel. The panel formed as one piece and each cell is not as visible as in other types. Efficiency of an amorphous solar cell is between 6 and 8%. The Lifetime of an amorphous cell is however shorter than that of crystalline cell. Amorphous cells have current density of about 15 mA/cm2,and the voltage of the cell without any connected load is 0.8 V, which is more as compared to crystalline cells. The efficiency of amorphous solar panels is low as those made from individual solar cells, although improvement has been made over recent years to a point where they can be use as a practical alternative to panels made with crystalline cells. Crystalline silicon solar cell The maximum efficiency of silicon solar cell is around 23 %, by adding some other semi-conductor materials it can increase up to 30 %, it depends on wavelength and semiconductor material being used. Crystalline solar cells are made up of wafers like stuff, which has about 0.3 mm thick and diameter of 10 to 15 cm. They can generate approximately 35 mA of current per cm2 of area at voltage of about 550 mV at full illumination. Crystalline solar cells can be wired in series or parallel to produce a solar panel. As each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells equipped in series are needed to produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is enough to charge a 12 Volt battery under certain conditions. Although the efficiency of mono-crystalline cells is slightly higher as compared to that of a polycrystalline cells, but there are some practical difference in their performance. Crystalline cells have longer lifetime than that of amorphous solar cells. In our project we have used crystalline silicon cell because they are more efficient yet lesser in volume as compared to other types of solar cell, easily available in market and it is more economical. Polycrystalline Cell Polycrystalline silicon, also called poly silicon , consists of small silicon crystals of Polycrystalline cells which can be recognized by a visible grain, a â€Å"metal flake effect†. Semiconductor grade (solar grade) polycrystalline silicon then form to single crystal silicon, that is randomly associated crystallites of silicon in polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal[11]. Single crystal silicon is used in manufacture most of Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be available up to 99.9999% pure. 3.4 Implementation of PV system: 3.4.1 Types of PV system There are three types of PV system being implemented around the world depending upon its function and integration with other energy resources. Standalone PV system Grid Connected PV system Hybrid Systems Stand alone PV system This type of system is usually present in our wrist watches, calculators and in space crafts also. These are dependent totally on its self generated power through solar panels and are directly used by DC loads or AC loads through inverter. In some system battery bank is also available to store the unused power to facilitate loads during night or under low light conditions. Further more a charge controller is also required in order to avoid battery from over charging and deep discharging. An inverter is also employed to provide power to AC loads. Grid Connected PV system In grid connected type the PV module has also backed up with WAPDA line or Grid connection. In this way if load is not getting enough power from the PV module or its battery, it will switch to the WAPDA line. This type of system is most commonly used around the World. Its applications are found mostly in small industries and homes. Hybrid System In this type the PV system is also integrated with two or more type of energy resources which may or may not be renewable resources .For example a wind turbine, steam engine or a small hydro plant etc. Other energy sources can also be integrated depending upon climate, geographical location of the place and several other perspectives. These systems are more appropriate for remote applications such as military installation, communication stations and rural villages. 3.4.2 Design Methodology Our project is based on a Hybrid System Consisting of a PV module and a windmill as two renewable energy resources, we have chosen these sources keeping in mind the climate and terrain of Lahore. 3.4.2.1 Components of Photovoltaic system: Solar cell Panel Inverter Charge Controller Batteries Integrator The major component of our system is the integrator .The function of this device is to integrate powers from both energy sources in a way that during operating time of the sources loads will directly get power from these sources and at night or the time when these sources are not operating loads are facilitated through battery banks. A controller is placed in the integrator circuit that is continuously monitoring the voltage level being provided by the sources. If the load can operate single handed by either of the sources the rely will build its connection from load with that source while the energy generated by the second source is being stored in the batteries .If both sources are required to derive a certain load rely opens up its connection of both sources with the load. When both sources are not providing a sufficient amount of power to the loads the controller will check whether batteries could provide sufficient amount of voltage so, it will start delivering power to load from the battery bank otherwise an LED blinks indicating that system cannot provide sufficient amount of power and will shutdown eventually. 3.4.2.2 Solar Panel Characteristics Table 3.1. Solar Panel Characteristics 3.4.2.3 Experimental Values This table shows the experimental results of output voltage and output current with respect to different timings and temperature variations in a day. Table 3.2. Solar Panel Throughput 3.4.2.4 Factors Affecting Output Power STC(Standard Test Condition) The electricity produce by solar cell is in DC, the DC output of solar panel is Tested under the STC that is Cell Temperature= 25 °C Solar Radiation Intensity= 1000 W/m2.. Air Mass= 1.5 These are the standard test condition at which Solar cell gives its Maximum Efficiency, in other conditions there is almost 10 to 15 percent of decrease in the efficiency of cell with respect to its STC rating. Temperature Output power of the solar cell is inversely proportion to the increase in temperature of the cell. For a crystalline module , a typical temperature reduction factor proposed by CEC is 89 percent which means †95 watts† module will typically provide 85 Watts (95watts*0.89=85watts) under sunlight conditions during summer seasons. Mismatch and wiring Losses The performance of the system can be affected due to mismatch of module connections. The loss in power also depends upon the increase in length of wire between source and load. As the distance between source and load increases losses also increases. Therefore the distance should be kept minimal to get maximum power throughput. DC To AC conversion Losses Since our system Prototype Modeling of Smart Grid Technology at Ciit Lahore Prototype Modeling of Smart Grid Technology at Ciit Lahore CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Definition: The smart grid system is vast collection of technologies to provide an electricity network having the ability to solve the major issues related to reliability, cost effectiveness of electric power and decentralization or grid dependency The smart grid technology using renewable energy sources transferred electricity towards user side with the concept of integration of renewable energy sources. 1.1.2 Why Smart Grid Technology Adopted The demand of electricity is increased so much by the passage of time, which creates some major problems related to conventional electricity network. By 2020 energy demand will be doubled from the present demand [1]. Smart grid is the result of such efforts which are performed to make availability of electricity more reliable, economical and user friendly with the concept of decentralized network due to two way communication of electricity through network[2]. The Architectural model of a 21st century power system that interconnects everyone to affordable, abundant, clean, reliable, and efficient electricity anytime, anywhere. The purpose of Smart Grid is also to integrate several renewable resources with our national Grid and enhances the efficiency; reliability and thus providing a hassle free Transmission of electric power. It also contributes to reduce carbon emissions and providing a pollution free environment. 1.2 Back Ground 1.2.1 The European Development in the Area of Smart Grid In the next three decades European member state will expend about 750 billion in power infrastructure. This amount will expend on generation and networks. The European Technology plate form was developed in 2005 to solve the problems of Network Owners, operators and users[3]. 1.2.2 Smart Grid Development in USA In USA the Smart grid developments initiated during first Bush Administration[4]. In 2002 a DOE study describes the hundred of million of Dollar spent In US power systems on transmission practices and results a proposal of construction of transformed national electricity grid upto2030 providing the best and secure transmission of electricity[5]. 1.2.3 Smart Grid Development in Australia Under the Energy Transformed Flagship the Intelligent Grid Program was launched on 19 Aug, 2008. This Program researched in the fields of Control methodologies and economic modeling for distributed generation, Social impact of Intelligent grid, New housing developments and micro grids[6]. 1.3 Design Description 1.3.1 Features of Smart Grid The most important features of Smart Grid Technology are: Integration of Renewable Sources Battery Storage option Provide electric power to both AC and DC loads Advance Monitoring 1.3.2 Proposed Methodology Above figure shows prototype modeling of smart grid system at micro level along with the integration of several renewable energy resources such as small wind plant and solar panels. The charge controllers are special devices used for the purpose to control the abrupt change in voltage and stop the reverse flow of current towards PV or wind turbine systems, and also control the charging and discharging of batteries. An integrator is also one of the most important components of our project. The function of this device to integrate powers from both energy sources in a way that during operating time of the sources loads will directly get power from these sources and at night or the time when these sources are not operating loads are facilitated through battery banks. 1.4 Advantages of Smart Grid A. Motivates and Includes the Consumer Smart Grid is a end user device it motivates the consumer to generate a free source of electricity and to utilize it in household appliances when electricity from Grid is not available. B. Provides Power Quality for 21st Century Needs It provides power free of disturbance, sags, interruptions and spikes. C. Markets Opportunities Smart grid supports energy markets that encourage both investment and innovation. D. Operates Efficiently and Optimizes Assets Smart grid is easy to install infrastructure, transmit more power through existing systems and optimizes easily with present grid. E. Reduction in cost of power infrastructure When renewable energy sources are infused into the power grid, end-use demands can be adjusted to available power supplies. The ability to manage and reduce peak demands demolishes the need for costly peaking and â€Å"just-in-case† power infrastructure. F. Reduced use of polluting plants Some existing powerplants are not environment friendly which is adversely affecting the environment around us. Smart grid can produce pollution free generation of electricity. G. Clean power market During serious air pollution alerts, power plants and heavy industries sometimes shut down. Smart Grid ensures you clean power options. H. Energy storage Smart Grid is also equipped with battery backup options which not only stores energy also used as grid shock absorbers as well. I. Integrate able with Energy Resources and Storage Options The system also enables plug-and-play interconnection to multiple energy resources and storage devices (e.g. solar, wind, battery storage, etc.) 1.5 Brief Introduction to chapters Chapter 2 This chapter is a survey report about renewable energy sources. Also wind and solar characteristics of Pakistan are given in this chapter. Supply and Demand gap also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3 This chapter is about PV system. Complete introduction and types of PV system are discussed also given here the architecture model of PV system with design description. And the experimental values also mentioned in this chapter. Chapter 4 This chapter defines the wind turbine specifications. Chapter starts from introduction then history discussed and after that design description is completely described. The experimental values also given in this chapter with advantages and drawbacks of wind turbine technology. Chapter 5 This chapter covers the remaining portion of smart grid technology. First of all integrator is discussed with design after that charge controller and power inverters also discussed with there design and circuitry. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY Contents: World Wide Survey of Renewable Energy Demand Supply Gap in Pakistan Depletion in Oil and Gas Energy Sources in Pakistan Wind Energy Solar Energy 2.1 World Wide Survey of Renewable Energy Renewable energy has an essential contribution in world energy generation. So many projects are under consideration regarding to renewable energy. 2.1.1 Global Status Report This report describes the market condition, investment and targets as well as policies. The report doesnt describe analysis or conclusions, though it reveals some extra ordinary facts regarding the renewable energy . By the end of 2005 only 45 countries were included in the achievement of renewable energy targets which are increased up to 76 in 2009. According to this report last year was the best era for renewable energy. Capacity in developing countries grew to 119GW, or 43% of the total. Including Pakistan and magnolia less or more than 8-0 countries has started plantation of wind power plants at commercial measures[7]. Some achievements of the year 2008 are: In just 1 year the capacity of solar photovoltaic plants tripled to 3 GW from 200 KW. Wind power by 29% and solar hot water increased by 15%. Grid connected photovoltaic systems increased up to 13GW, wind energy grew up to 250%, 121GW and total power generation capacity from renewable energy boost up to 75%. Spain becomes the super power in the field of grid connected PV systems with inclusion of 2.6GW. Germany also takes some handy steps and added 1,5GW in their system. Some other developed countries also provide large contributions like USA(3ooMW), Italy ( 300MW) , South Korea ( 270MW) and Japan (240MW) respectively . in total 16GW is the generation of solar including off-grid by 2009 worldwide. Table2.1 Energy Added and Exists in 2009-2010 2.2 Demand Supply gap in Pakistan If we give a look at demand supply graph then we will come to know that the difference between demand and supply is becoming wider and wider by the passage of time .the scenario in 3rd world countries is totally discriminated e.g. Pakistan. Needs are increasing exponentially but we are desperately lacking in finding out a good solution. if we have an eye view we may find 3 reasons of demand supply gap. Increase in prices of oil and gas , increase in population and increase in cost of energy . 2.2.1 Energy Demand With the increase in population energy requirements are also increasing. All the industry and the production of our daily need in dependent upon electricity . 2.2.2 Energy Supply Current eras total production of energy does not meet the current requirement of energy , though the end results are critical in the sense of increase in demand supply gap . Serious steps are needed to be 2.2.3 Energy cost If we have eye view on last few decades we will come to see the highlighted reduction in the reserves of oil and natural gas, which causes the increase in the cost of per unit production of electricity. This is also the reason of widening the demand supply gap. 2.2.4 Sustainability level The systems which are to be used for the generation of electricity must be stable, but unfortunately we have not surety of sustainability level of present system and the graph is gradually decreasing according to our present and future demands . This decrease in sustainability may overcome by using alternative techniques. 2.3 Depletion in oil and gas A large amount of electricity is being produced by fossil fuels and the present value of electricity generated by fossil fuels is increasing. According to the European energy commission and International energy the present reservoirs of oil and gas are not sufficient enough to meet the future requirements. so as the result after 10-12 years we have the depletion in the percentage of Oil using for the generation of electricity as shown in fig 2.2. As from the above it is obvious that from 1930 to one word till 2010 there is continuous growth in both oil and gas reserves but after 2010 there is deep declined. If the above graph follows the same pattern there is near future we will be totally dependent upon alternates of energy generation. 2.4 ENERGY SOURCES IN PAKISTAN The primary energy supplies today are not enough to meet even the present demand. More, a very large part of rural area does not have the electricity facilities because they are too expensive to be connected to the national grid. So, Pakistan like other developing countries in the region is facing a severe challenge in energy deficit. The development of renewable energy sources can play an important role in meeting such challenge. If we see around yourself Pakistan best suits for Solar (PV, thermal), water, wind and Wastes. These are the best renewable sources and Pakistan doesnt lack these. Pakistan can b benefited from these as substitute energy in areas where these renewable sources exist. Renewable energy Fossil fuels Nuclear power 2.4.1 Renewable energy It is energy which is produced by natural sources such as wind rain solar and geothermal heat. 2.4.1.1 Types of renewable Energy Wind Biomass Solar Wave and tidal Geothermal These all sources are best placed in Pakistan and we are not lacking in any at all , thus we can produce great amount of energy using these renewable sources , Capturing renewable energy by animals , plants and humans does not permanently deplete the resource. Fossil fuels are renewable but on a very long time-scale, are exploited at rates that may deplete these resources in the near future. 2.4.2 Fossil Fuels It includes natural gas, oil and coal . fossil fuels are lacking in Pakistan as well the world therefore renewable sources are needed to meet th essential needs 2.5 Wind Energy Wind energy is one of the best of renewable sources and probably suits Pakistan atmosphere at peak. As our project is related to wind energy as well. In Pakistan wind energy projects are working under the Pakistan Meteorological Dept with the financial collaboration of Ministry of Science and Technology which are accomplishing many such projects in Pakistan. About 3% of the total Pakistans land area is termed as good to excellent for utility scale production of electricity. Fig2.3. shows the variations of wind speeds in different areas of Pakistan Average wind speed in Lahore is 3m/s as shown in Fig.2.4 . Therefore for the prototype smart Grid system, average wind speed must exceeds the theoretical values as given in[10]. 2.6 Solar energy Its one of the types of renewable energies, as in our project we are working on solar energy, in photovoltaic system solar cells covert sun radiation to DC electricity. The provinces of Sindh , Punjab and Baluchistan and the Thar desert are specially suited for the utilization of solar energy. The solar statistics in Pakistan is highly favourable for energy generation. According to Fig2.5. the South western province offers perfect condition for utilization of solar energy. Since Pakistan locates near the equator so it has relatively high UV index as compared to other regions of the World. The solar characteristics graph in the Lahore region is shown in Fig. 2.6. Lahore city also offers suitable condition for harnessing solar energy The average sunlight hours lies between 7 to 8 hours per day which is approximately 2700 hours per annually. Graph in Fig. 3 shows the UV index of Lahore during a day time in the month of April. Usually the radiation intensity has its maximum value at noon .And value of solar radiation reaches its maximum value during the mid of summers. Chapter No 3 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM Contents: Introduction to solar panels History of PV system Photovoltaic Cell Architecture Implementation of PV system Battery 3.1 Introduction: Solar cell or photovoltaic cell is the device use to convert sunlight into electricity. It works on the basic principle of photovoltaic effect. 3.1.1 Photovoltaic effect When the photons of light falls on the semiconductor material. The photons try to knockout the electrons from the conduction bands. As the energy gap between valence and conduction band increases and when a sufficient amount of energy is projected by the light photons .the electrons knocked out from their respective atom and started to move freely. These free electrons moves towards n-side and holes created due to the deficiency of electrons in this region moves towards p-side to recombine themselves .This difference of potential allows the flow of current. The PV cell absorbs incoming light photons in p-type. This p-type layer should be synchronized in such a way that it can absorb as many as photons possible and set free as many as electrons possible, to make a radiant flow of current. In order to make and efficient flow solar cell , the surface of the cell should be kept rough to maximize the absorption of photons while reflection should be minimized in this way maximum conduction can be achieved 3.2 History The photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories. The first highly efficient solar cell was developed by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson in year 1954 using a diffused silicon p-n junction. Firstly, cells were developed for toys and other minor uses, as the cost of their production was very high. Design of solar cells is improved day by day to utilize it for more applications. The applications for that solar panels are used are different and there are three levels of generation 3.2.1 First Generation: First generation cells are single junction devices and they have large area also having high quality with reduction in production cost 3.2.2 Second Generation: These materials are developed to address energy requirements and production cost. They reduce high temperature processing as vapour deposition, electroplating and Ultrasonic nozzles. 3.2.3 Third Generation: The aimof these technologies is to improve poor electrical performance of second generation technologies with low production cost. 3.3 Photovoltaic cell architecture A PV module consists of a silicon cell .These cell are connected in series or parallel manner in order to produce desired voltage and current .Inside a PV cell a circuit is present that is sealed from the envoi metal protective lamination .A PV panel consists of one or more modules joined together. Finally these panels are combined to make a single PV array which is a complete electricity producing unit. The performance of a PV array or its modules is rated by its maximum throughput power under S.T.C (Standard Test Condition).STC is defined as when a PV modulecell is operated under 25  °C (77F), with an incident solar irradiation of 1000 W/m2 with the spectral distribution of 1.5 air mass. These are the perfect condition for a PV module to operate in , but in actual the performance of a PV module is almost 80 to 90 percent of its STC rating. The operating lifetime of a PV module is between 20 to 30 years .Most of the manufactures offers warranty of 20 or more years of its DC output power to a sustainable amount .PV modules are also lice censed under (UL) qualification test for its reliability checks. 3.3.1 Types of Solar Cell Now a days there are various types of cell materials are developed. Multi junction PV cells are made in order to increase the cell efficiency while decreasing its volume and weight. But they are far more expensive then an ordinary silicon cells. The maximum efficiency of a PV cell is achieved almost to 30 percent by doping different intrinsic material together .Example of the exotic materials are Gallium arsenide and Indium serenade etc. However silicon cells are the most common and widely used PV cells. There are three major types of Silicon cell: Amorphous silicon solar Cell or Thin Film Cell Mono-crystalline Wafers Poly crystalline Cell Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell Amorphous technology is often seen in small devices, such as those in garden lamps or calculators, although amorphous panels are also increasingly used in other larger applications. They are formed by depositing a thin film of silicon onto a sheet of different material such as steel. The panel formed as one piece and each cell is not as visible as in other types. Efficiency of an amorphous solar cell is between 6 and 8%. The Lifetime of an amorphous cell is however shorter than that of crystalline cell. Amorphous cells have current density of about 15 mA/cm2,and the voltage of the cell without any connected load is 0.8 V, which is more as compared to crystalline cells. The efficiency of amorphous solar panels is low as those made from individual solar cells, although improvement has been made over recent years to a point where they can be use as a practical alternative to panels made with crystalline cells. Crystalline silicon solar cell The maximum efficiency of silicon solar cell is around 23 %, by adding some other semi-conductor materials it can increase up to 30 %, it depends on wavelength and semiconductor material being used. Crystalline solar cells are made up of wafers like stuff, which has about 0.3 mm thick and diameter of 10 to 15 cm. They can generate approximately 35 mA of current per cm2 of area at voltage of about 550 mV at full illumination. Crystalline solar cells can be wired in series or parallel to produce a solar panel. As each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells equipped in series are needed to produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is enough to charge a 12 Volt battery under certain conditions. Although the efficiency of mono-crystalline cells is slightly higher as compared to that of a polycrystalline cells, but there are some practical difference in their performance. Crystalline cells have longer lifetime than that of amorphous solar cells. In our project we have used crystalline silicon cell because they are more efficient yet lesser in volume as compared to other types of solar cell, easily available in market and it is more economical. Polycrystalline Cell Polycrystalline silicon, also called poly silicon , consists of small silicon crystals of Polycrystalline cells which can be recognized by a visible grain, a â€Å"metal flake effect†. Semiconductor grade (solar grade) polycrystalline silicon then form to single crystal silicon, that is randomly associated crystallites of silicon in polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal[11]. Single crystal silicon is used in manufacture most of Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be available up to 99.9999% pure. 3.4 Implementation of PV system: 3.4.1 Types of PV system There are three types of PV system being implemented around the world depending upon its function and integration with other energy resources. Standalone PV system Grid Connected PV system Hybrid Systems Stand alone PV system This type of system is usually present in our wrist watches, calculators and in space crafts also. These are dependent totally on its self generated power through solar panels and are directly used by DC loads or AC loads through inverter. In some system battery bank is also available to store the unused power to facilitate loads during night or under low light conditions. Further more a charge controller is also required in order to avoid battery from over charging and deep discharging. An inverter is also employed to provide power to AC loads. Grid Connected PV system In grid connected type the PV module has also backed up with WAPDA line or Grid connection. In this way if load is not getting enough power from the PV module or its battery, it will switch to the WAPDA line. This type of system is most commonly used around the World. Its applications are found mostly in small industries and homes. Hybrid System In this type the PV system is also integrated with two or more type of energy resources which may or may not be renewable resources .For example a wind turbine, steam engine or a small hydro plant etc. Other energy sources can also be integrated depending upon climate, geographical location of the place and several other perspectives. These systems are more appropriate for remote applications such as military installation, communication stations and rural villages. 3.4.2 Design Methodology Our project is based on a Hybrid System Consisting of a PV module and a windmill as two renewable energy resources, we have chosen these sources keeping in mind the climate and terrain of Lahore. 3.4.2.1 Components of Photovoltaic system: Solar cell Panel Inverter Charge Controller Batteries Integrator The major component of our system is the integrator .The function of this device is to integrate powers from both energy sources in a way that during operating time of the sources loads will directly get power from these sources and at night or the time when these sources are not operating loads are facilitated through battery banks. A controller is placed in the integrator circuit that is continuously monitoring the voltage level being provided by the sources. If the load can operate single handed by either of the sources the rely will build its connection from load with that source while the energy generated by the second source is being stored in the batteries .If both sources are required to derive a certain load rely opens up its connection of both sources with the load. When both sources are not providing a sufficient amount of power to the loads the controller will check whether batteries could provide sufficient amount of voltage so, it will start delivering power to load from the battery bank otherwise an LED blinks indicating that system cannot provide sufficient amount of power and will shutdown eventually. 3.4.2.2 Solar Panel Characteristics Table 3.1. Solar Panel Characteristics 3.4.2.3 Experimental Values This table shows the experimental results of output voltage and output current with respect to different timings and temperature variations in a day. Table 3.2. Solar Panel Throughput 3.4.2.4 Factors Affecting Output Power STC(Standard Test Condition) The electricity produce by solar cell is in DC, the DC output of solar panel is Tested under the STC that is Cell Temperature= 25 °C Solar Radiation Intensity= 1000 W/m2.. Air Mass= 1.5 These are the standard test condition at which Solar cell gives its Maximum Efficiency, in other conditions there is almost 10 to 15 percent of decrease in the efficiency of cell with respect to its STC rating. Temperature Output power of the solar cell is inversely proportion to the increase in temperature of the cell. For a crystalline module , a typical temperature reduction factor proposed by CEC is 89 percent which means †95 watts† module will typically provide 85 Watts (95watts*0.89=85watts) under sunlight conditions during summer seasons. Mismatch and wiring Losses The performance of the system can be affected due to mismatch of module connections. The loss in power also depends upon the increase in length of wire between source and load. As the distance between source and load increases losses also increases. Therefore the distance should be kept minimal to get maximum power throughput. DC To AC conversion Losses Since our system

Duddy Kravitz - Following A Dream :: essays papers

Duddy Kravitz - Following A Dream Reach for the stars, is a common phrase many children hear in their life, whether by parents or role models in their lives. If a person puts their mind to a task at hand they can accomplish it most of the time, but when the goal is achieved and the path is taken to achieve the goal is crowded with hate and lies, the question arises; was it all worth it? In Mordecai Richler^s novel, The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, Duddy Kravitz, his uncle Benjy and Jerry Dingleman (The Boy Wonder), are all able to achieve their life long dreams, but we must examine if their sacrifices were worthy of the prize. Benjy strived his entire life to create a profitable business, raise a family, and make his father, Simcha, proud to be his father. Now, Benjy was able to make his business grow and become beneficial to all that were close to him. He was able to provide his nephew, Lennie, with a University education to help him on his way to becoming a doctor, and also gave Duddy a job working at his factory. These sound like descent things to do for your own family, however when Duddy worked for Benjy he never treated him with respect. This treatment towards Duddy did not help Benjy^s reputation with Duddy, who already thought Benjy favoured Lennie. As well, sending Lennie to University was a very thoughtful and expensive thing to do for him, but according to Duddy, ^Lennie never wanted to be a doctor^ You forced him!^(241). This idea of Lennie never wanting to be a doctor was evident when he ran away from school. Lennie could not take the pressure put on him by Benjy, but he wanted to make Benjy proud and by doing so almost got kicked out of school and ruined his life. The reason that Benjy was doing all this for his nephews was because he could not have any children, with his wife due to complications. Benjy started out doing something nice but ended up trying to live his life through his brothers. In the end Benjy attains cancer and is sinking towards death with no one to inherit his life long achievement, his factory. No one will take over his business in the family because Lennie is too busy, Max-his brother- is too uninformed about it and Duddy has a certain disliking for him. Duddy had lost his respect for Benjy due to the fact that Benjy always ridiculed him. Benjy made his father Simcha believe

Mini Dialectic Journal

This old lore I had forgotten; else I was not here. In the first scene, we see Teiresias brought in front of Oedipus to talk about the prophecy. He knows the true identity of the King, but feels like it is a burden for him to know it at all. He knows that it wouldn’t profit him to know the truth about Oedipus and the prophecy. He regrets being there, and wished that if he could have just forgotten it, then he won’t have to be in that place. As a prophet, Teiresias felt compelled to tell the truth though he knows that it won’t benefit him. He got dragged in the situation that’s why it’s really is burdensome for him. Ode 1 – CHORUS: Sore perplexed am I by the words of the master seer. Are they true, are they false? I know not and bridle my tongue for fear, Fluttered with vague surmise; nor present nor future is clear. Quarrel of ancient date or in days still near know I none Twixt the Labdacidan house and our ruler, Polybus' son. Proof is there none: how then can I challenge our King's good name, How in a blood-feud join for an untracked deed of shame? In this part, the chorus is somewhat doubting Teiresias and is siding with Oedipus. They’re saying that what the old prophet’s words were confusing, and because of this ambiguity, there is a hint of doubt in the prophecy. They dare not challenge the integrity of the good King Oedipus, as there is not much proof in what the prophet is saying. Because of this, none of them really knows what lies ahead in the future. Scene 2 – CREON: Were not his wits and vision all astray, when upon me he fixed this monstrous charge? When Oedipus and Teiresias argued, it unfolded to the King that someone would dethrone him, and it was Creon. Creon, brazened, stood up to question his King’s assumptions. He reasoned out that the prophet may be out of his mind when he said such things to Oedipus, which he shouldn’t believe much of what he says. Ode 2 – CHORUS: My lot be still to lead   The life of innocence and fly Irreverence in word or deed,   To follow still those laws ordained on high Whose birthplace is the bright ethereal sky No mortal birth they own, Olympus their progenitor alone: Ne'er shall they slumber in oblivion cold, The god in them is strong and grows not old. Still, Oedipus is devoid of the truth. He consults the gods, yet none of them seems to hear his woes and prayers. As a King who knows nothing about himself, he feels fear, anger and pity for himself. All he wanted to know was who his true parents are, but how will he now about it, if there’s know hope left for him to find the truth. Scene 3 – JOCASTA: My greetings to thee, stranger; thy fair words Deserve a like response. But tell me why Thou comest—what thy need or what thy news. Jocasta receives a visitor, who came to tell them that Polybus, Oedipus’ father has died. She thought that because of this, Oedipus was freed of the prophecy, only to find out that Polybus was really not the King’s father. Jocasta thought it was great news at first, only to find out that it would be a nail in the coffin for them. The visitor finally confirmed that Polybus and Merope were not Oedipus’ real parents. Ode 3 – CHORUS: Child, who bare thee, nymph or goddess? sure thy sure was more than man, Haply the hill-roamer Pan. Of did Loxias beget thee, for he haunts the upland wold; Or Cyllene's lord, or Bacchus, dweller on the hilltops cold? Did some Heliconian Oread give him thee, a new-born joy? Nymphs with whom he love to toy? At this part, the chorus questions that the real parents of Kind Oedipus, as the King himself doesn’t know anything about it. All that has unfolded to him that moment was realizations that he grew up knowing nothing about his own self, and as the truths became known, slowly he understands that there is a possibility that the prophecy about him has already been fulfilled. Scene 4 – OEDIPUS: Ah me! Ah me! All brought to pass, all true! O light, may I behold thee nevermore! I stand a wretch, in birth, in wedlock cursed, A parricide, incestuously, triply cursed! This part is the bitter realization that it was really him who’s mentioned in the prophecy, as confirmed by the shepherd. He killed his own father, and married his own mother Jocasta. He wasn’t able to bear all the bitter realizations in the end, despite all his greatness as a king. He was still a human being, weak at heart. Ode 4 – CHORUS: O heavy hand of fate! Who now more desolate, Whose tale more sad than thine, whose lot more dire? This is the summary of emotions felt in the story. Oedipus feels nothing but sadness, as his life has been full of lies. As he discovers the truth about himself, he learns that the prophecy has been true. He is the murderer of his father and had an incestuous relationship with his mother. Nothing could be worst that what he experienced. Exodos – OEDIPUS: Dark, dark! The horror of darkness, like a shroud, Wraps me and bears me on through mist and cloud. Ah me, ah me! What spasms athwart me shoot, What pangs of agonizing memory? After knowing the truth bout his life, Oedipus blinded himself, and has exiled himself away from the city. The haunting memory of his past would always be with him, that’s why he could not bear live in the light. Works Cited: â€Å"Sophocles' Oedipus the King†.   2000. April 1 2008. . Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of Knowledge. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Publishing, 2001. SparkNotes. â€Å"Oedipus Plays†.   2006. April 1 2008. . —. â€Å"Oedipus the King†.   2006. April 1 2008. .